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The lectures discuss complex problems of the origin of the psyche, criteria for the presence of SS in different species of living beings, principles of animal behavior and the formation of man as a social being and personality.
This is not just a textbook, but a student’s assistant in analyzing the behavior of living beings and their subjective experiences, called “psyche”. The lectures discuss the problems of relations between the concepts “behavior - activity”, “psyche - consciousness - unconscious”, the idea of the nature and essence of man. The publication is intended for students of higher educational institutions studying in the specialty “Psychology”; it will be useful for graduate students and teachers.
The book is recommended by the Council on Psychology of the UMO for classical university education as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in the direction and specialties of psychology.
Philosophical analysis of the psyche.
In this lecture we will conduct a philosophical analysis of the psyche. From the outset I would like to point out that this concept is introduced into psychology in two ways.
Firstly, it is introduced as explanatory, i.e., designed to explain the known facts of how humans and animals take into account events and objects of the external world in their behavior before a real physical collision with them, i.e. before physical contact. The primary fact for psychology is not the presence of some mysterious psyche that is unclear in nature, but the ability of some living beings to take into account the external world in their behavior, to take it into account when choosing a method of behavior and its implementation (objects, events, phenomena). Take into account not physically when encountering them, but in advance, before physical interaction with the object or before the occurrence of certain events. To explain these facts, a solution that is famous not only for psychology is proposed - an object that exhibits such an inexplicable quality or behavior is endowed with a special ability, which allows us to understand this inexplicable (for example, the presence of phlogiston in flammable objects). Living beings capable of such behavior are endowed with the ability to reflect the external world, that is, with the soul or psyche, as one of the forms of reflection.
You understand that in this case the psyche is introduced not as a fact, reality, or, more precisely, not as the name of reality, but as an explanatory concept (theoretical construct) designed to somehow interpret the characteristics of the behavior of living beings, in particular their ability to take into account the objective environment in advance . With the help of such a theoretical construct, we are able to explain what is not clear. Another thing is that over time this theoretical construct is accepted as the name of reality and acquires a mass of details, properties and characteristics that need to be studied and explained.
Content
Preface
Part one. Introduction to Psychology
Lecture 1. Psychology as science and practice. Subject and tasks of psychology
Lecture 2. Philosophical analysis of the psyche
Lecture 3. Empirical characteristics of the psyche. Mental criteria. The Necessity of the Psyche in Evolution
Lecture 4. Behavior and activity. History of research
Lecture 5. Activities
Lecture 6. Behavior and psyche of animals
Lecture 7. About the nature and essence of man
Lecture 8. Appropriation of socio-historical experience and the formation of higher mental functions
Lecture 9. About consciousness
Lecture 10. About consciousness and the unconscious
Part two. Motivational sphere of personality
Lecture 11. Personality
Lecture 12. Needs
Lecture 13. Subjective representation and objectification of needs
Lecture 14. Emotions
Lecture 15. Motivation of activity
Lecture 16. Will
Part three. Cognitive sphere of personality
Lecture 17. Sensation and perception
Lecture 18. Thinking
Lecture 19. Attention
Lecture 20. Memory
Afterword.
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Description: The published lectures are the first part of general psychology, called “Introduction to Psychology.”
The lectures discuss complex problems of the origin of the psyche, the criteria for its presence in different species of living beings, the principles of animal behavior and the formation of man as a social being and personality.
This is not a textbook, but a student’s assistant in analyzing the behavior of living beings and their subjective experiences, called the psyche.
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Man is a social being. This is what distinguishes it from other living beings. This means that the main place in his life is occupied not by the solution of biological problems (nutrition, protection from unfavorable environmental conditions, maintenance of the species), but by social, social problems (production, education and training, science and culture, etc.). This means that in his psyche the main place is occupied not by natural formations, but by properties acquired during life in society. These new properties are nothing more than the historical experience of humanity appropriated by man.<...>
A person cannot live outside of society. A child deprived of contact with people at an early age only grows into a humanoid creature. It is known that people who are deaf-blind from birth (or who have lost sight and hearing in the first years of life) grow normally, but their psyche remains completely undeveloped. Years pass, but nothing or very little humanity is developed in the psyche and behavior of such children. Only through special techniques that involve the child in joint activities with adults can such children be integrated into society and form a full-fledged human psyche in them.
Without contact with adults, a child does not become a person. Even in a generally accepted family, a child deprived of real, rich contacts develops incompletely. A child is a “locator tuned to thousands of sources” of information and “stimulants.” The adults around him accept something and condemn something in those who live and work next to them, are tolerant or intolerant of the weaknesses of others, quickly and sincerely respond to their grief or show moral deafness, come to the rescue or step aside - the totality of all these and many other qualities constitutes a living portrait of an adult, mirrored in the portrait of a child. The law of mirroring is an inexorable law of education.<...>
All living nature tends to gravitate towards a group, towards unification. Most often, associations are associated with procreation. But it is not uncommon for animal communities to be aimed primarily at the joint production of food, protection from enemies, unfavorable environmental conditions, etc. For people, association in a community is a necessary condition: almost all their needs are satisfied through the collective labor activity of society; The formation of people's consciousness also occurs only in society. When producing consumer goods, people enter into certain relationships with each other, coordinate efforts, and exchange the results of labor. A child will not be able to take part in the life of society without learning to communicate with other people and without mastering the forms and techniques of human relationships.
Human behavior is always variable, different even in similar situations, and when comparing the behavior of individual people, the question may arise: is there any similarity in behavior at all?
Take, say, the extreme form of negative actions of children - delinquency. Often similar actions have different motives. One stole a gun in order to have something prestigious in the eyes of his comrades, another - to protect himself from the rudeness of his alcoholic father, one stole someone else's car for the sake of a "chic" trip to the forest, the other - to show his friends that he was not a coward. Researchers are trying to look deeper than apparent differences or similarities in behavior. Social psychology views people as members, participants of various groups.
Living in society, a person belongs simultaneously to a country, a nation, a class, a party, a work collective, a family, a friendly company, etc. These associations differ in the reasons that gave rise to them, and in the complexity of the relationships within them, and in the degree and form of a person’s dependence on them. But in all cases, a person, being a member of one or more groups, cannot behave without taking into account the norms of behavior of this group. Each of us acts taking into account the opinions of others about our actions, especially the opinions of those social groups to which we belong. This orientation towards public opinion manifests itself in different ways. Either directly in our behavior, when we act as the group requires and expects from us, which does not always correspond to our desires; or in emotional experiences, when we do not act as others want, we deviate from the rules and experience this deviation from the “norm”; or in a mental search - primarily for ourselves - for arguments justifying our behavior if it differs from that accepted in society.
Public opinion has always been a real force. They called him for help, tried to deceive him, were afraid. This dependence on public opinion is superbly expressed in the famous words of Famusov: “Oh, my God, what will Princess Marya Aleksevna say!” or in another equally popular remark that “...evil tongues are worse than a gun.” Observations of researchers in various groups show how the opinions of a group can influence the behavior of its members.
During a survey of students at one of the schools, it was revealed that the children condemn cheating on test papers. But if the younger ones (1st-4th grades) condemn both those who cheat and those who allow them to cheat, then in the 7th-8th grades the children condemn cheating in general, but believe that it is even worse not to help a friend on a test. If the one who did the test refuses to help the one who didn’t and turned to him, everyone will condemn him. For high school students, peer opinion is often stronger than teacher opinion. Acting in agreement with the opinions of your classmates is often more important than in agreement with your inner self. Crime statistics show that almost a fifth of teenagers who committed a crime did so in an effort to prove their adulthood and gain the approval of their group.
It must be remembered that under the influence of a group a person changes not only his behavior and his conscious assessments. Other properties and characteristics of individual mental processes also change qualitatively: perception thresholds, memory capacity, thinking productivity, etc. Interesting results were obtained by psychologists when studying changes in human pain sensitivity in individual and group experiments. First, the threshold of pain sensitivity to electric current was determined for each schoolchild (12-14 years old). The experimenter gradually increased the intensity of the current until the teenager indicated with a conditioned signal that he could no longer bear the pain. The maximum amount of current that can be tolerated was different for different guys. Then they paired schoolchildren with similar thresholds of pain sensitivity and repeated the experiment. Under these conditions, all participants in the experiments tolerated a current intensity that was on average 13% greater than in the first experiment. In the third series of experiments, each teenager chose a partner for paired trials independently. And pain sensitivity thresholds increased even more - by an average of 37%. What do these experiments say? That even how teenagers overcome pain depends on group influence, and not just on their willpower.
The influence of group opinion is revealed, for example, when visually assessing the length of lines. The student being tested was presented with a standard line on a card, and then he was asked to find an equal one on another card, where three lines of different lengths were depicted. If the experiment was carried out with each student separately, then the student solved the problem correctly. But the experimenter persuaded several guys to give incorrect answers, i.e. formed a group of 7-8 people, which gave deliberately incorrect answers in the presence of a naive subject, who answered last and did not know about the collusion of all other participants in the experiment. Of the 123 such subjects, 37%, following the group's opinion, gave incorrect answers. And the rest, although they gave the correct answer, were worried, believing that it might be wrong. This experiment shows the role of group pressure and the mechanism of subordination to it, and illustrates the participation of the group in developing attitudes among its members.<...>
If in the family the parents and among adult relatives have developed common approaches and opinions to various spiritual values and this is said out loud constantly and with evidence, then the children also accept the positions of their relatives, which later turn into their attitudes.
Common family requirements for children, common correct views on life create a field of “group pressure” with a plus sign.
The child brought home someone else's thing, for example, a toy. And everyone at home seems to unanimously condemn him, expressing harsh and fair assessments. This is how a collective moral lesson is taught.
“Turn off this bullshit,” a father says to his son after hearing symphonic music on the radio. “Well, they started the symphony again, switch to another program,” the mother demands in the presence of her daughter. The opinion of parents is usually the most authoritative for a child. It gives birth to a child’s attitude towards serious music and, perhaps, for the rest of his life, unless someone, fortunately, “breaks” this attitude and forms a new one.<...>
Psychologists have long noticed: if one person has a positive attitude towards another, and another expresses a positive attitude towards some phenomenon, then the first person often also develops a positive attitude (attitude) towards this phenomenon. Simply put, if a child loves and respects his father and mother not only for the fact that they are his parents, but primarily for their social and labor achievements, then almost everything that the parents say or do forms positive attitudes in the growing person towards various important phenomena of life: work, knowledge, friendship, etc. It is the attitude of a positively assessed collective (group) that determines the behavior of an individual. But if a person is placed in a group that is hostile to him, then conformal behavior is not observed, i.e. a person does not adapt to the opinion of a hostile group, but follows his own assessments. The same thing happens when forming attitudes. If certain views are presented to a person as coming from a group that is positive for him, then these views are accepted, but if they are presented on behalf of a hostile group, then they are rejected.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF RUSSIAN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY IN RESEARCH OF "BRAIN-MIND" PROBLEM page 4
