What is the basic principle of Russian spelling. Principles of modern Russian spelling

Non-state educational institution

Parochial school "Kosinskaya"

Moscow

Article
“Basic principles of Russian spelling”

prepared

teacher of Russian language and literature

Ganeeva Victoria Nikolaevna

Moscow 2014

Basic principles Russian spelling.

Spelling (Greek o rthos – correct, grapho – I write) literally means 'spelling', i.e. correct writing that complies with the norms. But the meaning of the words “spelling” and “spelling” are not the same; the second word has a broader meaning that includes punctuation.

Russian orthography is a system of rules for writing words. It consists of five main sections: transmission of the phonemic composition of words in letters; continuous, separate and hyphenated (semi-continuous) spellings of words and their parts; use of capitals and lowercase letters; ways to transfer words from one line to another; graphic abbreviations of words.

Representation of the phonemic composition of a word by letters.

This is the main section of spelling. It is directly related to graphics. Graphics establish rules for matching letters and phonemes in significatively strong positions. The area of ​​orthography is significatively weak positions of phonemes. In some cases, spelling “interferes” in the area of ​​graphics – an area of ​​strong positions. Graphics determine the meanings of letters in their combinations with each other, regardless of specific words. Orthography gives rules for writing letters in words and morphemes.

The basic rule for spelling unstressed vowels: the same vowels are written in unstressed syllables as under stress in the same morpheme. We write o in the word water (although we pronounce [vada]) because under the stress in this root we hear [o] and write o: water, aquatic. We will write down the word pronounced [l`isa] fox, if we check the first vowel with a word foxes, and write down the forests , if we check with a word forest. This is how we determine which phoneme the sound of the weak position corresponds to, and write the letter denoting this phoneme.

Same general rule valid for voiced and voiceless consonants. At the end of a word and before a noisy consonant, the same consonant is written as before a vowel and a voiced consonant in the same morpheme. We write b in words tooth, teeth , although we pronounce [zup], [zupk`i], because before the vowel and before the sonorant consonant in this root we pronounce [b] and write b: teeth, dental. We are writing a request , although we pronounce [proz`ba], since before the vowel in this root we pronounce [s`] and write ask.

The principle of checking here is the same as for vowels: the sound of a weak position is checked by a strong position; In this way, the phoneme to which a given sound belongs is determined, and it is designated by the corresponding letter. The same letter denotes a phoneme in the strong and in weak positions- This is a phonemic principle, the basic principle of Russian spelling.

The phonemic principle also determines the spelling of hard and soft consonants: ь does not indicate the softness of the sound, but the softness of the phoneme, that is, softness that does not depend on position. For example, in the word climb pronounced [s`] before [t`], but the softness of [s`] here is due to the following [t`] (the same position before [t`] also determines the deafness of [s`]). In a position that is strong in terms of hardness ~ softness - at the end of a word - this softness is not present: climbed The phoneme here is hard, so in the form climb is not written after s . In shape imperative mood climb is also pronounced [s`t`], but the phoneme is soft, since the softness of the sound is preserved at the end of the word: lez - le [s`]. The softness of a phoneme is indicated by a soft sign. In a word go to sleep pronounced [s`n`], but when [n`] is replaced with [n], [s`] is also replaced with [s]: y [sn] y . Therefore, softness [s`] is not independent here; it is not indicated in writing. In a word ice floe pronounced [l`d`], when replacing [d`] with [d], the softness of [l`] is preserved: [l`d] s . Here the softness of the phoneme is indicated in writing by a soft sign.

The phonemic principle determines the spelling of all morphemes of a word: prefixes, roots, suffixes, endings. In a word approach pronounced [pts-], but the prefix is ​​written under- , since the check shows phonemes: p [o] access, along [d] steer . In the suffix of wordsbirch, aspenpronounced [ъ], but written O, since in the same suffix in a strong position [o] is pronounced: oak. In words on a chair and from a bullet the final vowel is the same - [and], but in the first case it refers to the phoneme (cf. per hundred [l`e`]), and in the second - to the phoneme (cf. from the earth [l`i`]). After soft consonants, the phoneme is indicated by the letter e, phoneme – and.

The phonemic principle ensures uniform spelling of the same morpheme in different forms the same word in in different words. Yes, in a word city as part of different word forms it is written the same, although it is pronounced differently: [gor't], [gor'd] a, [grad] a, [garat] ki, at [gart], at [gard], foreign [garod']niy, [garats] skoy. Writing city- in all these cases reflects the phonemic composition of this root – . Spelling the same morphemes the same way makes it easy to recognize words with those morphemes, which promotes quick comprehension and reading.

The basic principle of Russian orthography is also defined as morphological. The morphological principle consists in the requirement of uniform spelling of the same morphemes. In fact, the same morphemes in writing are often conveyed differently: the historical alternations reflected in writing destroy the unity of the writing of morphemes. Yes, in words city ​​and citizen the same root is written differently. In roots and in many affixes such non-phonetic alternations are common; Wed : burn - burning - burning - ignite - arson; mouse onok - mouse onk and - mouse onok.

Historical alternations are transmitted in writing (hence, a single spelling of the same morphemes is not preserved), but phonetic alternations are not transmitted in writing (hence, the same letter denotes the entire series of positionally alternating sounds, i.e., a phoneme in the understanding of the Moscow Phonological schools). Thus, uniform spellings of the same morphemes are usually a manifestation of the phonemic principle of orthography.

In some cases, our orthography is built on a morphological principle that operates contrary to the phonemic one. Thus, graphic uniformity of morphemes is maintained when writing her) under stress after sibilants:yellow - turn yellow, acorn - acorns, bakes - cries, shuttle - shuttle, cheeks - cheek.In these cases, after the sibilants, the phoneme appears under stress, but it is written her) to maintain uniformity with the same morphemes, where it alternates with or may be in an unstressed position: whisper () – whisper () – whisper ().

The spellings also correspond to the morphological principledisinformation, counterplay, pedagogical institute, super-ideal– with and after consonants corresponding to hard phonemes. Here the appearance of the root is preserved, contrary to the rule of writing graphics s after such consonants (cf.:unprincipled, background).

The phonemic principle operates when the phoneme is in a strong position (this is, in fact, the principle of graphics), and when the phoneme is in a weak position and can be determined by a strong position. 80% of such writings.

In some cases, verification is impossible, since in this morpheme the phoneme does not occur in a strong position: dog, axe, boot, barn, passage, picky, young, to the hall, football, table, health, sit, sit t. In this case, a hyperphoneme appears: from tank, from pog, fu ball etc. The phonemic principle here limits the choice of letters, but does not provide an unambiguous solution: you can write dog and dog, football and fudball . Writing in such cases is carried out on the basis of phonemic and traditional principles.

The traditional principle of spelling is that the spelling fixed by tradition is used. The choice of letter is not motivated by modern linguistic patterns. From the point of view of sound correspondences, for example, it makes no difference o or a write in the pre-stressed syllable in words boot, dog . Traditional spellings must be memorized.

The traditional principle comes into play not only in cases where a phoneme cannot be placed in a strong position, but also when there is an alternation of phonemes in the strong position of the same morpheme: glow - dawn . In unstressed position there is also a hyperphoneme here: for good reason. Choosing a letter in words z arya, ripen determined by tradition. Vowels in the root clone- – clan- can be shock: bows, bows. Choice about for unstressed syllables is based on tradition:inclination, incline.

In most cases, the traditional principle does not contradict the phonemic one, but complements it; 15% of such writings. But in a number of cases the traditional principle contradicts the phonemic one. In a strong position this is written u in the word assistant, h in the words of course, boring etc. In a weak position this is, for example, spelling rootsmountains- – gar-, swim- – swim-, in which only [a] is stressed, and without stress is written and o, and a.

In conflict with the phonemic principle is also the phonetic principle, which is that a letter denotes not a phoneme, but a sound. This is the principle used to write final consonants in prefixes.without-/bes-, from-/res-, from-/is-, bottom-/nis-, once-/ras-, through-/through-: cloudless, joyless, boundless – useless; find, cut, publish – redeemetc. The final phoneme of the prefix is ​​here, this is evidenced by the pronunciation [z] before vowels and sonorant consonants, but the letter is written h , if pronounced [z], and With , if pronounced [s]. The phonetic principle is not applied quite consistently here: in wordsbad taste, tastelessat the end of the prefix it is pronounced [s]; in wordssilent, frypronounced [sh, zh]; in wordsto become generous, to split on site with zero sound. Thus, the phonetic principle here is complicated by the traditional one.

Spelling o or a in the prefix once-/time- – rose-/grown-also meets the phonetic principle - O written under stress when pronounced [o], A written without accent:sledge, search, placer; collapse, search, scatter. And here the phonetic principle is complicated by the traditional one (cf.: wanted ). It is written phonetically s after c: gypsies, cucumbers, Kuritsyn, pale-faced.

Differential spellings are based on the differentiation in writing of words or forms that match in phonemic composition: burn - burn, arson - arson, cry - cry, rye - rye, carcass - carcass, coccyx - coccyx, company - campaign, o rel - Eagle.

Also in the Russian language there are rules for continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings.

List of used literature

1. Granik G.G. Secrets of spelling. – M.: Education, 1991.
2. Kustareva V. A. History of the Russian language. – M.: Education, 1982.
3. Rozhdestvensky N. S. Properties of Russian spelling as the basis of its teaching methods. – M., 1960.
4. Modern Russian literary language. / Ed. P. A. Lekanta. – M.: Higher. school, 1988.
5. Totsky P.S. Spelling without rules. – M., 1991.
6. Filina L.V. Russian language. Encyclopedia. – M.: Education, 1979.

Unlike spelling norms, which allow options that are assessed as equal, spelling norms always offer only one spelling option for a word and prohibit others. Spelling- a system of generally accepted writing rules for a language. So, of the possible spellings: “tiliphon”, “telephone”, “telephone” - only the last spelling corresponds to the rules of Russian spelling. Following the rules of spelling, we write “rye”, since this is a noun feminine, but “knife” is a noun masculine, although in both cases we pronounce the hard sound “sh” at the end. If we want to use the verb in the present tense, we will write “sits down”; but the same verb in writing will look completely different in indefinite form- “sit down”, although in both cases we pronounce [sadytsa], etc.

There are usually four main principles of spelling.

• 1. Phonetic: in writing, each letter retains the meaning that is assigned to it in the alphabet, and the word is written exactly as it is heard. For example: in the related words “painting” and “receipt”, the accent in the prefix is ​​written “o”, and in the unstressed syllable, as one hears, “a”.
• 2. Morphological: the spelling of significant parts of a word is preserved in all positions. This means that in some cases the word is not spelled as it is pronounced, but as it is spelled in other cases. For example, the root -vod- is written through “O” in the words: “water”, “flood”, “underwater”, although the sound [o] is clearly pronounced under stress only in the last word.
• 3. Ideographic: writing “b” in feminine words with “ch”, “sh”, “zh”, “sch” (mouse, quiet, rye, etc.) to distinguish them from masculine nouns. In Russian we write the word “ball” without soft sign, and the word “night” is with a soft sign. This principle has a distinctive meaning. This is how the rule is formulated: “If the word is masculine, there is no soft sign, if the word is feminine, there is a soft sign.”
• 4. Historical: the existing spelling of a word is preserved, regardless of its sound in a living language; we write words the way they were written hundreds of years ago. In the Russian language, an example of the operation of this principle can be considered the rules for writing “i” (instead of a pronounced sound like “y”) after hissing words, or the rule for writing the word “dog” with an “o”.

Why are spelling principles so important for the Russian language? Probably, the principle “always write as you hear” will seem to some the most democratic, the most convenient, the simplest. Once you learn the alphabet, you can read and write at once! But it's not that simple. The fact is that this proposal would be acceptable if we were talking about a small group of people, for example, about one family or about the inhabitants of one village... And language, as we have already found out, is a social phenomenon and serves to communication between a huge number of people. Among these millions of absolutely different people There are bound to be significant variations in the pronunciation of words. Therefore, the principle of “write as you hear” would very soon lose its meaning. Orthographic error is wrong writing words, it can only be allowed in writing, usually in a weak phonetic position (for vowels - in an unstressed position, for consonants - at the end of a word or before another consonant) or in continuous-separate-hyphenated spellings. Such an error can only be seen in a written text, it cannot be “heard”: you can say orally “about the blue [I]m sky,” but you can write this phrase only with “e” - “about the blue sky.”

IN difference from her grammatical an error can be made both in writing and in oral speech, it is not only visible, but also audible: illiterate people can, for example, say “they are running”, “he is lying” instead of the correct “they are running”, “he is lying”.

THIS IS INTERESTING

Russian spelling has a long history, and this explains some of the difficulties of our spelling. Significant changes have taken place in the Russian language, and now many words are pronounced differently from how they are written.

Many rules have appeared that determine certain spellings. Is Russian really that difficult to learn? Maybe the spelling of other languages ​​is much easier than ours? This is what L. Uspensky says in his wonderful book “A Word about Words”: “There is an ancient Greek word, the name of one of the countless goddesses of the Hellenic Olympus: “Psyuhe”, or “Psyche”. It means "soul, spirit, breath." This word has taken root in almost all European languages; we meet it in the Russian language in the name of the science “psychology” and in the associated words “psychologist”, “psyche”... The name itself greek goddess“Psyukhe” is rendered as “Psyche” in our country, in France as “Psiche”, and among the Germans as “Psyukhe”. It is not surprising: written in Latin letters, it looks like "Psyche". The English spell this word almost the same way as the French - “Psyche”, but it is pronounced “Saiki”. Yes, exactly “Saiki”, no more and no less! In the written word there is no “a”, “y”, or “k”, but in the spoken word all this is evident. On the contrary, in the written word there is “p”, there is “igrek”, there is “tse”, there is “x”, but in the spoken word there is none of this - not a sign. This is the spelling!»"

Discussing what we read

• 1. Can every sound be called a phoneme? Justify your answer.
• 2. Do phonemes have independent significance? How do you understand the expression “independent significance”?
• 3. What is intonation and is it important in Russian?
• 4. What is the difference between vowels and consonants in the Russian language?
• 5. Why do you think the Moscow dialect became the basis for the formation of pronunciation norms of the Russian literary language?
• 6. What is the difference between spelling norms and spelling norms?

Quests

• 1. Tell us about the functions that speech sounds perform in language. What is the difference between a sound and a letter?
• 2. How many vowel sounds are there in the Russian language? Compare their number with the number of vowels of the alphabet.
• 3. How many consonants are there in the Russian language? Do all consonant sounds form hard/soft pairs? What about deafness/voice?
• 4. How do you think the ending in the highlighted adjective should be pronounced and what is the reason for this pronunciation option:

« He listened to Lensky with a smile.

The poet's passionate conversation,

ANDmind, still in judgmentunsteady,

And an eternally inspired gaze, -

Everything was new to Onegin...”?

• 5. Tell us about the main principles of spelling. Give examples of the implementation of these principles in Russian.
• 6. Insert the missing letters, read these phrases, guided by modern spelling standards:

latest mod...l, underground tunnel...l, enemy...squad, country highway..., mashed potatoes..., black coffee..., unpleasant incident...nt, fast...revolution , swimming pool, historical music..., folklore....pos., strict d..kan, dietary...nutrition, slim strength...etc.

7. Write down the phonetic transcription and make a phonetic analysis of the words:

boletus, northeastern, long, berry, list, television, hedgehog, green, gardener, cheese maker, love.

Literature

• 1. Avanesov R.I. Russian literary pronunciation. M., 1950.
• 2. Avanesov R.I. Phonetics of the modern Russian literary language. M., 1956.
• 3. Matusevich M. I. Introduction to general phonetics. M., 1959.
• 4. Peshkovsky A. M. Intonation and grammar // Selected works. M., 1959.
• 5. Reformatsky A. A. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1967.
• 6. Trubetskoy N. S. Fundamentals of phonology. M., 1960.
• 7. Shcherba L.V. Phonetics French. M., 1953.

CHAPTER 3

Morphemics and morphology; word formation and morphological norms; grammatical categories and ways of expressing them in modern Russian language

• Spelling (from the Greek words orthos - “correct” + graphe - “writing”) - spelling.
• Uspensky L.V. Decree. op.

The principles of Russian spelling are considered very complex, but compared with other European languages, where there are a lot of traditional, conventional spellings, the spelling of the Russian language as a whole is quite logical, you just need to understand what it is based on.

This article talks about the morphological principle of Russian orthography, examples of which are the majority of words in our language.

What is morphology

Understanding what the morphological principle of Russian orthography is, examples of which are given already in the first grade of elementary school, is impossible without the concept of morphology as such. What is morphology? In what areas of knowledge is it customary to talk about it?

The application of the concept of morphology is much wider than the linguistic field, that is, the field of language study. The easiest way to explain what it is is by using the example of biology, where this term actually comes from. Morphology studies the structure of the organism, its components and the role of each part in the life of the organism as a whole. For example, the internal morphology of a person is anatomy.

Thus, morphology in the linguistic sense of the word studies the anatomy of a word, its structure, that is, what parts it consists of, why these parts can be distinguished and why they exist. The “components” of a person are the heart, liver, lungs; flower - petals, pistil, stamens; and the words are prefix, root, suffix and ending. These are the “organs” of the word located in complex interaction each other and performing their functions. The topic “Morphemics and word formation” at school is aimed specifically at studying these components words, the laws of their connection.

Preliminarily answering the question about the main principle of our spelling, we can say that we write down the constituent parts of a word (morphemes) as elements of writing; this is the morphological principle of Russian spelling. Examples (the simplest ones to begin with): in the word “balls” we write I, as we write it down, we transfer the root “ball” without changes, just as we hear it in the word “ball”.

Are there other principles of spelling?

To understand the essence of the morphological principle of Russian orthography, it needs to be considered against the background of other principles.

Let us clarify what spelling or spelling is. These are the rules that govern writing. specific language. The main principle that underlies these rules is not always morphological. Apart from this, first of all we need to talk about phonetic and traditional principles.

Recording sounds

For example, you can write down a word as it is heard, that is, write down sounds. We would write the word “oak” like this: “dup”. This principle of writing words (when nothing is important except the sound of the word and the transmission of this sound) is called phonetic. It is followed by children who have just learned to write: they write down what they hear and say. In this case, the uniformity of any prefix, root, suffix or ending may be violated.

Phonetic principle in Russian

There are not many examples of phonetic spelling. It affects, first of all, the rules for writing the prefix (without- (bes-)). In cases where we hear the sound C at its end (before voiceless consonants), we write down exactly this sound (carefree, uncompromising, unscrupulous), and in those cases when we hear Z (before voiced consonants and sonorants), we write it down (uncomplaining, carefree, slacker).

Traditional principle

Another important principle is traditional, also called historical. It lies in the fact that a certain spelling of a word can only be explained by tradition or habit. Once upon a time, a word was pronounced, and therefore written, in a certain way. Time has passed, the language has changed, its sound has changed, but according to tradition the word still continues to be written this way. In Russian, this, for example, concerns the spelling of the well-known “zhi” and “shi”. Once upon a time in the Russian language these combinations were pronounced “softly”, then this pronunciation disappeared, but the writing tradition was preserved. Another example of traditional spelling is the loss of connection between a word and its “test” words. This will be discussed below.

Disadvantages of the traditional way of writing words

In the Russian language, there are quite a lot of such “evidence” of the past, but if you compare, for example, with the English language, it will not seem to be the main one. IN English Most of the writings are explained precisely by tradition, since no reforms were carried out in it for an extremely long time. That is why English-speaking schoolchildren are forced not so much to understand the rules of spelling words as to memorize the spellings themselves. Only tradition, for example, can explain why in the word “high” only the first two letters are “voiced”, and the next two are written simply “out of habit”, denoting zero sounds in the word.

Widespread use of the traditional principle in the Russian language

As mentioned above, the spelling of the Russian language follows not only the morphological principle, but also the phonetic and traditional one, from which it is quite difficult to escape completely. Most often we come across the traditional or historical principle of Russian spelling when we write down so-called dictionary words. These are words whose spelling can only be explained historically. For example, why do we write “ink” with an E? Or "underwear" with E? The fact is that historically these words are associated with the names of colors - black and white, since at first ink was only black, and linen was only white. Then the connection between these words and those from which they were derived was lost, but we continue to write them that way. There are also words whose origin can be explained using modern words generally impossible, but their writing is strictly regulated. For example: cow, dog. The same goes for foreign words: Their spelling is governed by the words of another language. These and similar words just need to be learned.

Another example is the spelling qi/tsy. Only convention can explain why I is written in the roots of words after T (with the exception of some surnames, for example, Antsyferov, and the words tsyts, chicks, chicken, gypsy), and in the endings - Y. After all, the syllables in both cases are pronounced exactly the same and are subject to no verification.

Obvious logic when writing words with traditional spelling no, and, you see, they are much harder to learn than “testable” words. After all, it is always easier to remember something that has an obvious explanation.

Why the morphological principle?

The role of the morphological principle in spelling is difficult to overestimate, because it regulates the laws of writing, makes it predictable, eliminates the need to memorize an endless number of words in traditional writing and “unraveling” spellings in phonetic writing. After all, in the end, the correct spelling of words is not a simple whim of linguists. This is what ensures easy understanding of the text, the ability to read any word “on sight”. Children's writing “vykhodnyi myzbabushkay hadili nayolku” makes reading the text difficult and slow. If we imagine that words will be written differently each time, the reader, his speed of reading the text and the quality of his perception will suffer from this, first of all, since all efforts will be aimed at “deciphering” the words.

Perhaps, for a language that is at least rich in word forms (that is, less rich in morphemes) and has fewer word-forming capabilities (the formation of words in the Russian language occurs very easily and freely, according to a variety of models and using the most different ways), this principle would be suitable, but not for a Russian. If we add to this the rich cultural discourse, that is, the complexity and subtlety of thoughts that our language is designed to express, then a primitive phonetic notation is completely unacceptable.

The essence of the morphological principle of the Russian language. Examples

So, having examined the background of the existence of the morphological principle and found out what morphology is, let’s return to its essence. It's very simple. When we write down a word, we choose not sounds or words as recording elements, but parts of words, its constituent elements (prefixes, roots, suffixes, postfixes and inflections). That is, when writing a word, we build it, as if from cubes, not from but from more complex ones, significant entities- morpheme And “transfer”, each part of the word must be written down unchanged. In the word “gymnastic” after N we write A, as in the word “gymnast”, since we are writing down an entire morpheme - the root “gymnast”. In the word “clouds” we write the first letter O, as in the form “cloud”, since we “transfer” the whole morpheme - the root “clouds”. It cannot be destroyed or modified, because the morphological principle says: write down the whole morpheme, regardless of how it is heard and pronounced. In the word “cloud”, in turn, we write the final O at the ending, as in the word “window” (this is the ending of a neuter noun in nominative case singular).

The problem of following the morphological principle in Russian writing

In Russian, the problem with writing according to morphological principles is that we constantly fall into the traps of our pronunciation. Everything would be simple if all morphemes always sounded the same. However, in speech everything happens completely differently, which is why children, following the phonetic principle, do this large number errors.

The fact is that sounds in Russian speech are pronounced differently, depending on their position in the word.

Search for standard morphemes

For example, at the end of words we never pronounce a voiced consonant - it is always deafened. This is the articulatory law of the Russian language. It’s hard to imagine, but this doesn’t happen in all languages. The English, on the contrary, are always surprised when Russians try to apply this law and pronounce a voiceless consonant at the end, say, English word"dog". In a “stunned” form - “doc” - the word is completely unrecognizable to them.

To find out which letter should be written at the end of the word "steamer", we must pronounce the morpheme "move" in such a way as not to put it in the weak position of the absolute end of the word: "go". From this example of the use of a morpheme it is clear that its standard ends in D.

Another example is vowel sounds. Without stress, we pronounce them “fuzzy”; they sound clearly only under stress. When choosing a letter, we also follow the morphological principle of Russian orthography. Examples: to write the word “walk”, we must “check” the unstressed vowel - “pass”. This word has a clear, standard vowel sound, which means that we write it in a “weak” position - without stress. All of these are spellings that obey the morphological principle of Russian orthography.

We also restore other standards of morphemes, not only root ones, but also others (for example, we always write the prefix “NA” one way and no other way). And it is the standard morpheme, according to the morphological principle of Russian orthography, that we write down as an element when we write a word.

Thus, the morphological principle of Russian orthography presupposes knowledge about the structure of the word, its formation, part-speak, grammatical features(otherwise it will be impossible to restore the standards of suffixes and endings). To write fluently and competently in Russian, you must have a rich vocabulary- then the search for “standards” of morphemes will take place quickly and automatically. People who read a lot write competently, since a free orientation in the language allows them to easily recognize the connections between words and their forms. It is during reading that the understanding of the morphological principle of Russian orthography develops.

The basic rule of the phonetic principle (the dream of every schoolchild!): “As we hear, so we write.” Guided by this rule, today one should write horat instead of city or piti instead of five. Of course, initially the letter-sound system of Russian writing was focused specifically on pronunciation. In ancient Russian texts (for example, birch bark charters) you can find such spellings as bestyda (without shame), bezloby (without malice) and even bezhnego (without it). Equally “phonetic” are the first attempts at writing in a child who has barely mastered the alphabet. “Sivodni I went to Ermitash and f sat with Tyota May,” wrote my four-year-old daughter. And today the phonetic principle is used as a leading principle, for example, in Serbian and Belarusian orthography. However, applying it is by no means as simple as it seems at first glance. Firstly, it is difficult to follow pronunciation when writing. Secondly, pronunciation does not have unconditional unity: after all, each of us speaks and hears in our own way. Learning to “decipher” texts written strictly within the framework of the phonetic principle will not be easier than learning to write “according to the rules,” that is, in accordance with the logic of the morphological principle.
Nevertheless, some of the modern spellings developed precisely under the influence of phonetic patterns:

• Writing only two consonants where morphologically there should be three, and (in some cases) only one consonant where morphologically there should be two: ode ss ki = Ode ss -a + s k; ss udit b = s + ss ud-a; ma n ka = ma nn -a + k; oper t ka = oper t -a + k, etc. (The reasons that necessitated such a violation of the morphological principle of spelling were discussed above). Noteworthy in this sense is the participle carriage + burnt, the spelling of which has undergone long fluctuations. Note that the sound z before the next z in this word is replaced by the sound z and to convey a long, or, in other words, double zh, two letters are enough - zzh. It is in this phonetic spelling (ignited) that this word is recorded in " Explanatory dictionary Russian language" edited by D.N. Ushakov (1935-1940). However, later the morphological spelling (burnt), adopted in modern dictionaries, prevailed.
  Double consonants in derived words in accordance with pronunciation (i.e. in those positions where the phonetic principle is “more influential” than the morphological one) are not preserved in the following cases:
• in the first part of compound words: gra m entry (though: gra mm background recording) r point (although: to pp respondent point), etc.;
• at the end of compound abbreviated words military r, laboriously r, rural r, sobko r, special r, junco r(although: military co pp respondent) and derivatives from them (voenkorovsky, junkorovets, etc.); Such words should be distinguished from graphic abbreviations. correspondent, worker corr. etc., which are a combination of two separate independent words (own correspondent, working correspondent);
• in forms of subjective assessment of proper names, if the suffix following the root begins with a consonant: Kiri l ka (though: Kiri ll, Kiri ll abalone), Fili n ka (though: Fili pp, Fili pp OK);
• in some of those words whose productive stem ends in nn and the suffix begins with a consonant: ante n ka, ante n box, though: ante NN a, ante NN glasses; colo n ka, colo n chatted though: colo NN ah, colo NN shaped; ma n ka, although: ma NN cereal; one and a half n ka, though: then NN oh, one and a half NN y; form n ka (although the form NN y); fi n skiy, fi n ka, though: fi NN, fi NN o-Ugric;
• in some derivatives from the word krista ll formed using suffixes starting with a consonant: crista l ny, Krista l Yes, Krista l ness, Christa l bitch (but: Krista ll ichical, Krista ll ization, krista ll ik, etc.);
• in all derivatives of the word opera tt a: opera T ka, opera T accuracy, opera T full-time [Please note that this paragraph presents an exhaustive list of words that do not retain a double consonant during inflection and the formation of derivatives. The spelling of all other words of this type is subject to the morphological principle: ba ll- high five ll ny, Bo NN- bo NN skiy, va tt- stova tt ny, etc.];
• in words there will be n ovka and will n sheep (although: Will NN oh, will NN ovsky), which is most likely due to extralinguistic factors;
• in the words of brie l yant, brie l Yantik, Brie l Yantin, Brie l amber, brie l yantschik, serving as spelling variants of brie ll iant, bree ll iantik, brie ll iantine, brie ll iant, brie ll iantschik and having a special stylistic coloring(options with l instead of ll are typical, first of all, for conversational style speeches, but are also widely used in poetic texts);
• in the words of mi l yon, mi l yonny, mi l monger, mi l yonshchitsa, although assessed as hopelessly outdated and not recommended spelling options for the forms ll ion, mi ll ionic, mi ll ionist, mi ll ionist, but, nevertheless, widely represented in poetic texts, where “correction” of the spelling would inevitably entail a violation of the poetic rhythm: “Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness” (A. Blok. Scythians) ;
• in words well l evik, well l yovka, well l eva, n at face, n at l (although: well ll ification, well ll ified, well ll ify, well ll become infected).

• Writing -s- instead of -z- at the end of some prefixes (without- (nebez-, bez-), voz- (vz-), iz- (syz-), niz-, raz- (ros-), through- ( through-)) before the next voiceless consonant.
  The reason that prefixes with zs exist in our orthography is own laws, lies in the deep history of the Russian language. The fact is that these prefixes, unlike all the others, were never prepositions, that is, independent words, and therefore between the final sound of such a prefix and the initial sound of the next part of the word there was, relatively speaking, no “gap”, no pause , as a result of which assimilation (i.e. phonetic adaptation) of the last consonant of the prefix to the first consonant of the root occurred regularly and from the most ancient times.
  Morphologically, these prefixes should always be written the same way, since in terms of meaning scatter- , for example, is no different from raz- (scatter - scatter). This is exactly how, without changing the graphic appearance, we write all the other prefixes: reset - throw off, throw up - throw up, throw away - throw away, etc. However, the spelling of prefixes in zs is not completely phonetic. Let's say, in the word ruthless, instead of the spelling s, one actually hears w, and in the word silent at the end of the prefix it sounds not s, but sh. In other words, when writing prefixes of this kind, the spelling reflects only one of the features of their sound: sonority or deafness, determined by the next sound. And even then, strictly speaking, not so much with a sound, but... with a letter. Please note: the word tasteless is written with the spelling variant bez-, although in place of the spelling z the unvoiced sound s is actually pronounced (since the subsequent b is deafened before the sound k). But the real sound is eclipsed in our consciousness by the force of the visual impact of the letter.
  For purely methodological purposes, one of the researchers of modern Russian writing suggests using the following funny mini-dialogue, which combines all ten consonant letters, before which the final consonant of the prefixes listed above is always indicated by the letter s: “- Styopka, do you want shchetc? - Fi!” [Meierov V.F. Modern Russian writing: Designation of sounds in weak positions: Tutorial. Irkutsk, Irkutsk University Publishing House. 1995. P. 87].
• The presence of four written variants for the prefix roz- (ros-) - raz- (ras-), which reflects not only the alternation of voiced z with unvoiced s, but also stressed o with unstressed a: search - but to search, ro write-off - but write off, etc. It would seem that this discrepancy can be avoided by completely abandoning the options with the letter a, and write, for example, list (similar to painting) and distribute (since there is a form distributed). However, modern pronunciation resists such orthographic simplification: we know of several cases when, under the stress in the prefix, it is clearly audible (developed, r a sleep [See V. Mayakovsky: “With what pleasure would He be whipped and crucified by the gendarmerie caste ..." ("Poems about the Soviet passport")], etc.). Therefore, the very wording of the rule should be clarified: not “under stress it is written o, without stress - a”, as most textbooks and reference guides say, but “in an unstressed position one should always write ras- (raz-), and under stress - then what is heard (usually rose- (ros-))". However, this formulation also needs to be supplemented: according to the current rules, the adjective investigative is still written about, although the prefix is ​​not under stress [This exception is discussed in sufficient detail in the article on spelling reform].

• point-linear:

railway station (train station)(Fig. 2)

Rice. 2. Railway station()

• hyphens:

lit-ra (literature)

physical education (physical education)(Fig. 3)

Rice. 3. Children in physical education ()

The ability to correctly abbreviate words in writing is a skill that is very useful for your future adult life. It will be needed when taking notes on texts, lectures, etc. And it is spelling that is responsible for this. If you open a reference book on Russian spelling and punctuation, a lot of space will be devoted to this section, where all the graphic abbreviations you need will be given.

Another section that spelling deals with is moving part of a word from one line to another.

Whatever you think about the fact that now this section of spelling is not strict, all the same, there are some basic rules that all those writing in Russian should use. Although there are not very many of them now.

There are six basic hyphenation rules to consider. But the idea that this is an optional spelling point is wrong. Because if you moved some word, for example, car like this:

this will indicate that you do not understand that word transfer is based on the principle of taking into account the syllabic structure of a word and taking into account the composition of the word. This will be the first signal that you do not have sufficient command of spelling norms and rules.

Look at the audio chain:

(in) a new way

You cannot know what kind of word it is or what part of speech it belongs to.

in a new way- preposition and adjective

in a new way- adverb

Spelling is also responsible for this. There are a large number of rules that you have become familiar with in the spelling of compound nouns and adjectives. You've worked on this before.

This section is also in charge of spelling.

For example, the sound form of a word eagle(Fig. 4) will not tell you what kind of word is in front of you (is it a common noun or proper noun). And only writing with a capital or small letter will help you solve this problem:

eagle(common noun)

(name of city)

The most basic, most important section of spelling is transferring in letters on a letter the sound composition of a word. The vast majority of the rules you learn in school are concentrated in this section.

When they talk about the principles of Russian orthography (there are three of them), they mean the principles of this section.

The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological(morphematic).

The essence of the principle: it is necessary to consistently convey the same morpheme in writing. For example, uniformly convey the same root in all words with the same root, the same prefix, the same suffix.

This principle applies not only, say, to the roots of words with the same root, prefixes, suffixes, but also to any significant part of the word, including the ending.

Consider an example:

Into the corridor e (Fig. 5)

We write the prepositional case ending in the word form e, although it sounds in an unstressed position And-shaped sound. You can say that at the end of this word form the letter is written e, because it is a masculine noun, of the second substantive declension. But why should you write the ending in the prepositional case of masculine words of the second substantive declension? -e ? Let us remember that the same morpheme is conveyed uniformly in writing. This means that you need to understand that the service morpheme called “ending” can be checked on any other word of the same characteristic (m.r., singular, pr. p.).

For example, on the table e (under accent sounds e) (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6. Vase on the table ()

Therefore, in the prepositional case of the second declension you need to write -e .

This is a wonderful principle of Russian spelling that organizes all our writing.

Let's take a number of some words with the same prefix, which do not change in the Russian language (with a few exceptions), and see how this prefix behaves at the sound level:

from blossom

from shade

from chain

from give

from since then

It is quite obvious that some changes occur in speech at the sound level, which our spelling does not reflect, because it is based on this basic principle - convey the same significant part of a word in the same way in writing.

This is not the only principle of spelling. There are two more principles that we encounter when conveying the sound appearance of a word using letters.

The second principle is called phonetic.

The essence of the principle:I write as I pronounce and hear.

It would seem that this principle is very simple and easy. But the number of rules that obey this principle in the Russian language is small. You are well aware of the spelling rule for spelling prefixes ending in h- ,With- . These prefixes, in accordance with the orthographic principle, are allowed to convey the actual sounding consonant in the outcome of these prefixes. But in fact, there is not much phonetic here. Sounds before vowels h and you are allowed to write h:

offend - once offend

But before the root, which begins with a voiced consonant, you sound h, and you have to write at the end of these prefixes h.

Look at the adjective:

without delicious

In this word, the root begins with a voiceless consonant; when pronounced, deafening occurs h V With.

We can conclude that this rule is not entirely phonetic.

Look at the verb:

races sew- there is no deafness in pronunciation With, not ringing h, but it sounds like a long consonant w.

That is, this seemingly phonetic rule needs to be slightly adjusted and formulated as follows:

Prefixes ending in h-, will be written with a letter h, if the root begins with a letter denoting a vowel sound or a voiced consonant.

The letter will be written With at the end of these prefixes if the root begins with a letter denoting a voiceless consonant.

There are also phonetic spellings and another familiar rule:

If the root begins with a vowel sound And and a prefix ending in a consonant is added, then in accordance with the pronunciation it is allowed to reflect this change in sound in writing And into sound s:

And play - under s play

This is a phonetic principle, a phonetic rule. But if you think about it, after a hard consonant, with all the desire, it is impossible to pronounce only And, vowel only s:

b s l - b And l

m s l - m And l

n s l - p And l

This rule has two exceptions:

1. you cannot reflect live pronunciation in writing s-shaped sound, if these are two Russian prefixes inter- And super- :

between And Institute evening

over And interesting game

In these words we hear the sound s, but we write the letter at the beginning of the roots of these words And. Because if we allowed writing -s after the prefix inter- , then one of the basic rules Russian spelling ( live-shi write with a letter And). The same goes for the Russian console super- : in the Russian language there is not a single word with a sequence of letters hey(only hee), so we write And at the root of the word after this prefix.

2. after foreign language prefixes, the letters cannot be changed following the pronunciation And on s. This rule is not entirely good for Russian speakers in that a native speaker must know the list of these foreign language prefixes. But mostly school rule you have them all listed ( counter-, dis-, ab-, hell- etc.)

There is another principle according to which words are written. It is called differently: traditional, historical, traditional-historical.

The essence of the principle: I write the word the way it was written before.

There are very few such words of traditional spelling (dictionary words) in the original Russian vocabulary. You become familiar with the spelling of these words in elementary school:

O gherkin, m O rock, with O tank

These are all vocabulary words you learn in elementary school. Remember what's in the word dog you need to write the letter in the first syllable O, although it sounds A, not so difficult.

Even if you follow the changing pronunciation of words, this does not mean that you need to immediately change the spelling of the word. Or, for example, it so happened that in the word dog vowel O We cannot check in any way with the help of a strong position, we cannot find in the words of the same root or in the forms of this word that the emphasis falls on it. But this also does not mean that this orthographic presentation of the word should be changed. We'll just remember how to spell this word. The spelling of any language must be conservative; it must record and restrain those unconditional linguistic changes that occur. Changes have occurred with these vocabulary norms (our native words of origin). Previously, these words had the same root words, where the spelling of the vowel O or A was checked (the stress fell on these vowels). With the development of language, these “relatives” were lost, but this does not mean that the spelling of words needs to be changed.

The Russian language has a large number of borrowed words that are written in accordance with the traditional historical principle. This internationalisms - words that are created according to the models of Greek and Latin words and which have entered almost all Western European languages. They will be written the same in these languages. For example:

passionarity -passionarity

As you can see, in Russian we write double in this word With, which means this is double With will be written in English, and in French, and in German languages. Their spelling is the same. These traditional historical words, in which we, relying on our language, cannot check the spelling of vowels, consonants, double consonants, must memorize or find out their spelling in dictionary order. There are a lot of such words today. All languages ​​develop, coexist with each other, and interact. And these internationalisms are present in every language. This presents some difficulty for the student, for the writer. Therefore, the number of high school vocabulary dictations is large.

Knowing some other Western language can sometimes help, because we often deal with internationalisms.

Let's return to the morphological principle. There are two more things that often no one thinks about. For example, with the prefix from- There are all sorts of changes in pronunciation. Everyone knows that a vowel can be checked by placing it in a strong position (under stress). And for a consonant, the strong position will be the position before the vowel. That is why our orthography with its leading morphological principle is very well and clearly organized. We always, without even realizing it, do a quick check and understand that in some word, for example, the root is - water-, and in the other - the prefix from- or under-, because we carry out these checks without thinking.

“A high degree of organization of spelling is an indicator of the high culture of a nation.”

Our spelling meets this requirement.

Rice. 7. S.I. Ozhegov ()

And another famous linguist, Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba (Fig. 8), wrote:

Rice. 8. L.V. Shcherba ()

The spelling of the Russian language is organized very well. All exceptions to the rules only emphasize the good organization of the spelling system of the Russian language.

References

1. Lvova S.I., Lvov V.V. Russian language. 11th grade. - M.: Russian word, 2014.
2. R.N.Buneev, E.V.Buneeva, L.Yu.Komissarova, Z.I.Kurtseva, O.V.Chindilova. Russian language. 11th grade. - M: Balass, 2012.
3. Goltsova N.G., Shamshin I.V., Mishcherina M.A. Russian language. 10-11 grades. Textbook. - M.: Russian Word, 2014.

1. Pandia.ru ().
2. Textologia.ru ().
3. Pyat-pyat.ru ().

Homework

1. List the areas that spelling covers. Explain the essence of the basic principles of spelling.
2. Rewrite by inserting the missing letters.

Without...blatant, without...activity, without...inventory, without...togovy, take...up, take...down, dis...information, counter...gra, notorious...known, scanned, to...to summarize, post...impressionist, before ...yulsky, super...refined, sport...gra, from...long ago, from...zmal, with...improvise, trans...Ordanian, without...hidden, without...initiative, dis...infection, inter...institutional, above...individual, not without...interesting , ob...cut, excellent, pre...impressionistic, pre...history, super...industrialization.