Golden Horde(Ulus Jochi) - a medieval state in Eurasia.
The beginning of the era of the Golden Horde
The formation and formation of the Golden Horde begins in 1224. The state was founded by the Mongol Khan Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, and until 1266 it was part of the Mongol Empire, after which it became independent, retaining only formal subordination to the Empire. The majority of the state's population were Volga Bulgars, Mordovians, and Mari. In 1312, the Golden Horde became an Islamic state. In the 15th century. the unified state broke up into several khanates, the main one among which was the Great Horde. The Great Horde existed until the mid-16th century, but the other khanates collapsed much earlier.
The name “Golden Horde” was first used by the Russians after the fall of the state, in 1556, in one of the historical works. Before this, the state was designated differently in different chronicles.
Territories of the Golden Horde
The Mongol Empire, from which the Golden Horde emerged, occupied territories from the Danube to the Sea of Japan and from Novgorod to Southeast Asia. In 1224, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire between his sons, and one of the parts went to Jochi. A few years later, Jochi’s son, Batu, undertook several military campaigns and expanded the territory of his khanate to the west; the Lower Volga region became the new center. From that moment on, the Golden Horde began to constantly capture new territories. As a result, most of modern Russia (except for the Far East, Siberia and the Far North), Kazakhstan, Ukraine, part of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan fell under the rule of the khans of the Golden Horde during its heyday.
In the 13th century. The Mongol Empire, which had seized power in Rus' (), was on the verge of collapse, and Rus' came under the rule of the Golden Horde. However, the Russian principalities were not ruled directly by the khans of the Golden Horde. The princes were only forced to pay tribute to the Golden Horde officials, and soon this function came under the control of the princes themselves. However, the Horde did not intend to lose the conquered territories, so its troops regularly carried out punitive campaigns against Rus' to keep the princes in obedience. Rus' remained subject to the Golden Horde almost until the collapse of the Horde.
State structure and management system of the Golden Horde
Since the Golden Horde left the Mongol Empire, the descendants of Genghis Khan were at the head of the state. The territory of the Horde was divided into allotments (uluses), each of which had its own khan, but smaller uluses were subordinate to one main one, where the supreme khan ruled. The ulus division was initially unstable and the boundaries of the uluses were constantly changing.
As a result of the administrative-territorial reform at the beginning of the 14th century. the territories of the main uluses were allocated and assigned, and the positions of ulus managers - ulusbeks - were introduced, to whom smaller officials - viziers - were subordinate. In addition to the khans and ulusbeks, there was a national assembly - kurultai, which was convened only in emergency cases.
The Golden Horde was a paramilitary state, so administrative and military positions were often combined. The most important positions were occupied by members of the ruling dynasty who were related to the khan and owned lands; smaller administrative positions could be occupied by mid-level feudal lords, and the army was recruited from the people.
The capitals of the Horde were:
- Saray-Batu (near Astrakhan) - under the reign of Batu;
- Sarai-Berke (near Volgograd) - from the first half of the 14th century.
In general, the Golden Horde was a multi-structured and multinational state, therefore, in addition to the capitals, there were several large centers in each region. The Horde also had trading colonies on the Sea of Azov.
Trade and economy of the Golden Horde
The Golden Horde was a trading state, actively engaged in buying and selling, and also had multiple trading colonies. The main goods were: fabrics, linen canvases, weapons, jewelry and other jewelry, furs, leather, honey, timber, grain, fish, caviar, olive oil. Trade routes to Europe, Central Asia, China and India began from the territories that belonged to the Golden Horde.
In addition, the Horde received a significant part of its income from military campaigns (robberies), collection of tribute (yoke in Rus') and the conquest of new territories.
The end of the era of the Golden Horde
The Golden Horde consisted of several uluses, subordinate to the authority of the Supreme Khan. After the death of Khan Janibek in 1357, the first unrest began, caused by the absence of a single heir and the desire of the khans to compete for power. The struggle for power became the main reason for the further collapse of the Golden Horde.
In the 1360s. Khorezm separated from the state.
In 1362, Astrakhan separated, the lands on the Dnieper were captured by the Lithuanian prince.
In 1380, the Tatars were defeated by the Russians during an attempt to attack Rus'.
In 1380-1395 the unrest ceased and power was again subordinated to the Great Khan. During this period, successful Tatar campaigns against Moscow were made.
However, at the end of the 1380s. The Horde attempted to attack Tamerlane's territory, but were unsuccessful. Tamerlane defeated the Horde troops and ravaged the Volga cities. The Golden Horde received a blow, which marked the beginning of the collapse of the empire.
At the beginning of the 15th century. New khanates were formed from the Golden Horde (Siberian, Kazan, Crimean, etc.). The khanates were ruled by the Great Horde, but the dependence of new territories on it gradually weakened, and the power of the Golden Horde over Russia also weakened.
In 1480, Rus' was finally freed from the oppression of the Mongol-Tatars.
At the beginning of the 16th century. The Great Horde, left without small khanates, ceased to exist.
The last khan of the Golden Horde was Kichi Muhammad.
In the mid-13th century, one of Genghis Khan's grandsons, Kublai Khan, moved his headquarters to Beijing, founding the Yuan dynasty. The rest of the Mongol Empire was nominally subordinate to the Great Khan in Karakorum. One of the sons of Genghis Khan - Chagatai (Jaghatai) received most of the lands Central Asia, and Genghis Khan’s grandson Hulagu owned the territory of Iran, part of Western and Central Asia and Transcaucasia. This usul, allocated in 1265, is called the Hulaguid state after the name of the dynasty. Another grandson of Genghis Khan from his eldest son Jochi, Batu, founded the state of the Golden Horde. History of Russia, A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgieva 2004 - from 56.
The Golden Horde is a medieval state in Eurasia, created by Turkic-Mongol tribes. Founded in the early 40s of the 13th century as a result of the conquered campaigns of the Mongols. The name of the state came from the magnificent tent that stood in its capital, sparkling in the sun. The Golden Horde: myths and reality. V L Egorov 1990 - from 5.
Initially, the Golden Horde was part of the huge Mongol Empire. The khans of the Golden Horde in the first decades of its existence were considered subordinate to the supreme Mongol khan in Karakorum in Mongolia. The Horde khans received a label in Mongolia for the right to reign in the Ulus of Jochi. But, starting in 1266, the Golden Horde Khan Mengu-Timur for the first time ordered his name to be minted on coins instead of the name of the All-Mongol sovereign. From this time the countdown of the independent existence of the Golden Horde begins.
Batu Khan founded a powerful state, which some called the Golden Horde, and others the White Horde - the khan of this Horde was called the White Khan. The Mongols, often called Tatars, were a small minority in the Horde - and they soon disappeared among the Cuman Turks, adopting their language and giving them their name: the Cumans also began to be called Tatars. Following the example of Genghis Khan, Batu divided the Tatars into tens, hundreds and thousands; these military units corresponded to clans and tribes; a group of tribes united into a ten-thousandth corps - tumen, in Russian, “darkness” Magazine “History of the State” February 2010 No. 2 article “Golden Horde” from 22.
As for the now familiar name “Golden Horde,” it began to be used at a time when not a trace remained of the state founded by Khan Batu. This phrase first appeared in the “Kazan Chronicler”, written in the second half of the 16th century, in the form “Golden Horde” and “Great Golden Horde”. Its origin is connected with the khan’s headquarters, or more precisely, with the khan’s ceremonial yurt, richly decorated with gold and expensive materials. This is how a 14th century traveler describes it: “An Uzbek sits in a tent called a golden tent, decorated and outlandish. It consists of wooden rods covered with gold leaves. In the middle is a wooden throne, covered with gilded silver leaves, its legs are made of silver, and its top is strewn with precious stones.”
There is no doubt that the term “Golden Horde” was used in colloquial speech in Rus' already in the 14th century, but it never appears in the chronicles of that period. Russian chroniclers proceeded from the emotional load of the word “golden,” which was used at that time as a synonym for everything good, bright and joyful, which could not be said about the oppressor state, and even populated by “filthy ones.” That is why the name “Golden Horde” appears only after time erased all the horrors of Mongol rule. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, A M Prokhorov, Moscow, 1972 - p. 563
The Golden Horde covers a vast territory. It includes: Western Siberia, Northern Khorezm, Volga Bulgaria, Northern Caucasus, Crimea, Dasht-i-Kipchak (Kipchak steppe from the Irtysh to the Danube). The extreme southeastern limit of the Golden Horde was Southern Kazakhstan (now the city of Taraz), and the extreme northeastern limit was the cities of Tyumen and Isker in Western Siberia. From north to south, the Horde extended from the middle reaches of the river. Kama to Derbent. This entire gigantic territory was quite homogeneous in landscape terms - it was mainly steppe. The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Sarai, located in the lower reaches of the Volga (sarai translated into Russian means palace). The city was founded by Batu Khan in 1254. Destroyed in 1395 by Tamerlane. The settlement near the village of Selitrennoye, left over from the first capital of the Golden Horde - Sarai-Batu ("city of Batu"), is striking in its size. Spread over several hillocks, it stretches along the left bank of the Akhtuba for more than 15 km. It was a state consisting of semi-independent usuls, united under the rule of the khan. They were ruled by Batu's brothers and the local aristocracy. History of Russia, A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgieva 2004 - from 57
If we evaluate the total area, the Golden Horde was undoubtedly the largest state of the Middle Ages. Arab and Persian historians of the XIV-XV centuries. summed up its size in figures that amazed the imagination of contemporaries. One of them noted that the length of the state extends to 8, and the width to 6 months of travel. Another slightly reduced the size: up to 6 months of travel in length and 4 in width. The third relied on specific geographical landmarks and reported that this country extends “from the Sea of Constantinople to the Irtysh River, 800 farsakhs in length, and in width from Babelebvab (Derbent) to the city of Bolgar, that is, approximately 600 farsakhs” Golden Horde : myths and reality. V L Egorov 1990 - from 7.
The main population of the Golden Horde were Kipchaks, Bulgars and Russians.
Throughout the 13th century Caucasian border was one of the most restless, since the local peoples (Circassians, Alans, Lezgins) were not yet completely subjugated to the Mongols and offered stubborn resistance to the conquerors. The Tauride Peninsula also formed part of the Golden Horde from the beginning of its existence. It was after inclusion in the territory of this state that it received a new name - Crimea, after the name of the main city of this ulus. However, the Mongols themselves occupied in the 13th - 14th centuries. only the northern, steppe part of the peninsula. Its coast and mountainous regions at that time represented a number of small feudal estates, semi-dependent on the Mongols. The most important and famous among them were the Italian city-colonies of Kafa (Feodosia), Soldaya (Sudak), Chembalo (Balaclava). In the mountains of the southwest there was a small principality of Theodoro, the capital of which was the well-fortified city of Mangup. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, A. M. Prokhorov, Moscow, 1972 - p. 563.
Relations with the Mongols of the Italians and local feudal lords were maintained thanks to brisk trade. But this did not in the least prevent the Sarai khans from attacking their trading partners from time to time and treating them as their own tributaries. To the west of the Black Sea, the border of the state stretched along the Danube, without crossing it, to the Hungarian fortress of Turnu Severin, which blocked the exit from the Lower Danube Lowland. “The northern borders of the state in this area were limited by the spurs of the Carpathians and included the steppe spaces of the Prut-Dniester interfluve History of Russia 9-18 centuries, V I Moryakov higher education, Moscow, 2004 - from 95.
It was here that the border of the Golden Horde with the Russian principalities began. It passed approximately along the border between steppe and forest-steppe. The border between the Dniester and Dnieper stretched in the area of modern Vinnitsa and Cherkasy regions. In the Dnieper basin, the possessions of the Russian princes ended somewhere between Kiev and Kanev. From here the border line went to the area of modern Kharkov, Kursk and then went to the Ryazan borders along the left bank of the Don. To the east of the Ryazan principality, from the Moksha River to the Volga, there was a forest area inhabited by Mordovian tribes.
The Mongols had little interest in territories covered with dense forests, but despite this, the entire Mordovian population was completely under the control of the Golden Horde and constituted one of its northern uluses. This is clearly evidenced by 14th-century sources. In the Volga basin during the 13th century. the border passed north of the Sura River, and in the next century it gradually shifted to the mouth of the Sura and even south of it. The vast region of modern Chuvashia in the 13th century. was completely under Mongol rule. On the left bank of the Volga, the Golden Horde borderland stretched north of the Kama. Here were the former possessions of Volga Bulgaria, which turned into component The Golden Horde without any hint of autonomy. The Bashkirs who lived in the middle and southern Urals also formed part of the Mongol state. They owned in this area all the lands south of the Belaya River Golden Horde and its fall Greeks B. D. Yakubovsky A. Yu. 1998 - from 55.
The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of its time. At the beginning of the 14th century, she could field an army of 300 thousand. The heyday of the Golden Horde occurred during the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312 - 1342). In 1312, Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde. Then, like other medieval states, the Horde experienced a period of fragmentation. Already in the 14th century, the Central Asian possessions of the Golden Horde separated, and in the 15th century, the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan (mid-15th century) and Siberian (late 15th century) khanates emerged. History of Russia, A. S. Orlov, V. A. Georgieva 2004 - from 57.
The phenomenon of the Golden Horde still causes serious controversy among historians: some consider it a powerful medieval state, according to others it was part of the Russian lands, and for others it did not exist at all.
Why the Golden Horde?
In Russian sources, the term “Golden Horde” appears only in 1556 in the “Kazan History”, although among the Turkic peoples this phrase occurs much earlier.
However, historian G.V. Vernadsky claims that in Russian chronicles the term “Golden Horde” originally referred to the tent of Khan Guyuk. The Arab traveler Ibn-Battuta wrote about this, noting that the tents of the Horde khans were covered with plates of gilded silver.
But there is another version according to which the term “golden” is synonymous with the words “central” or “middle”. This is precisely the position occupied by the Golden Horde after the collapse of the Mongol state.
As for the word “horde”, in Persian sources it meant a mobile camp or headquarters; later it was used in relation to the whole state. In Ancient Rus', a horde was usually called an army.
Borders
The Golden Horde is a fragment of the once powerful empire of Genghis Khan. Great Khan by 1224 he divided his vast possessions between his sons: one of the largest uluses with the center in the Lower Volga region went to his eldest son, Jochi.
The borders of the Jochi ulus, later the Golden Horde, were finally formed after the Western Campaign (1236-1242), in which his son Batu (in Russian sources Batu) participated. In the east, the Golden Horde included the Aral Lake, in the west - the Crimean Peninsula, in the south it was adjacent to Iran, and in the north it abutted the Ural Mountains.
Device
Judging the Mongols solely as nomads and herders should probably become a thing of the past. The vast territories of the Golden Horde required reasonable management. After the final separation from Karakorum, the center of the Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde was divided into two wings - western and eastern, and each had its own capital - Sarai in the first, Horde-Bazaar in the second. In total, according to archaeologists, the number of cities in the Golden Horde reached 150!
After 1254, the political and economic center of the state completely moved to Sarai (located near modern Astrakhan), whose population at its peak reached 75 thousand people - by medieval standards, a fairly large city. Coin minting is being established here, pottery, jewelry, glass-blowing, as well as metal smelting and processing are developing. The city had sewerage and water supply.
Sarai was a multinational city - Mongols, Russians, Tatars, Alans, Bulgars, Byzantines and other peoples lived peacefully here. The Horde, being an Islamic state, was tolerant of other religions. In 1261, a Russian diocese appeared in Sarai. Orthodox Church, and later the Catholic bishopric.
The cities of the Golden Horde are gradually turning into large centers of caravan trade. Here you can find everything - from silk and spices, to weapons and precious stones. The state is also actively developing its trade zone: caravan routes from the Horde cities lead both to Europe and Rus', as well as to India and China.
Horde and Rus'
In Russian historiography, for a long time, the main concept characterizing the relations between Rus' and the Golden Horde was “yoke.” They painted us terrible pictures of the Mongol colonization of Russian lands, when wild hordes of nomads destroyed everyone and everything on their way, and the survivors were enslaved.
However, the term “yoke” was not in Russian chronicles. It first appears in the work of the Polish historian Jan Dlugosz in the second half of the 15th century. Moreover, the Russian princes and Mongol khans, according to researchers, preferred to negotiate rather than subject the lands to ruin.
L. N. Gumilyov, by the way, considered the relationship between Rus' and the Horde to be a beneficial military-political alliance, and N. M. Karamzin noted the most important role of the Horde in the rise of the Moscow principality.
It is known that Alexander Nevsky, having secured the support of the Mongols and insured his rear, was able to expel the Swedes and Germans from northwestern Rus'. And in 1269, when the crusaders were besieging the walls of Novgorod, a Mongol detachment helped the Russians repel their attack. The Horde sided with Nevsky in his conflict with the Russian nobility, and he, in turn, helped resolve inter-dynastic disputes.
Of course, a significant part of the Russian lands was conquered by the Mongols and imposed tribute, but the scale of the devastation is probably greatly exaggerated.
Princes who wanted to cooperate received so-called “labels” from the khans, becoming, in essence, Horde governors. The burden of conscription for the lands controlled by the princes was significantly reduced. No matter how humiliating vassalage was, it still preserved the autonomy of the Russian principalities and prevented bloody wars.
The Church was completely exempted by the Horde from paying tribute. The first label was issued specifically to the clergy - Metropolitan Kirill by Khan Mengu-Temir. History has preserved the words of the khan: “We gave favors to the priests and monks and all the poor people, so that with a right heart they pray to God for us, and for our tribe without sorrow, they bless us, and do not curse us.” The label ensured freedom of religion and inviolability of church property.
G. V. Nosovsky and A. T. Fomenko in “ New chronology“put forward a very bold hypothesis: Rus' and the Horde are one and the same state. They easily turn Batu into Yaroslav the Wise, Tokhtamysh into Dmitry Donskoy, and transfer the capital of the Horde, Sarai, to Veliky Novgorod. However, the official history is more than categorical towards this version.
Wars
Without a doubt, the Mongols were best at fighting. True, they took for the most part not by skill, but by numbers. The conquered peoples - Cumans, Tatars, Nogais, Bulgars, Chinese and even Russians - helped the armies of Genghis Khan and his descendants to conquer the space from the Sea of Japan to the Danube. The Golden Horde was unable to maintain the empire within its previous limits, but one cannot deny its belligerence. The maneuverable cavalry, numbering hundreds of thousands of horsemen, forced many to capitulate.
For the time being, it was possible to maintain a fragile balance in relations between Russia and the Horde. But when the appetites of Mamai’s temnik began to play out in earnest, the contradictions between the parties resulted in the now legendary battle on the Kulikovo Field (1380). Its result was the defeat of the Mongol army and the weakening of the Horde. This event ends the period of the “Great Rebellion,” when the Golden Horde was in a fever from civil strife and dynastic squabbles.
The unrest ceased and power strengthened with the accession of Tokhtamysh to the throne. In 1382, he again marches on Moscow and resumes paying tribute. However, exhausting wars with the more combat-ready army of Tamerlane ultimately undermined the former power of the Horde and for a long time discouraged the desire to make campaigns of conquest.
In the next century, the Golden Horde gradually began to “fall apart” into pieces. So, one after another, the Siberian, Uzbek, Astrakhan, Crimean, Kazan khanates and the Nogai Horde appeared within its borders. The weakening attempts of the Golden Horde to carry out punitive actions were stopped by Ivan III. The famous “Standing on the Ugra” (1480) did not develop into a large-scale battle, but it finally broke the last Horde khan, Akhmat. From that time on, the Golden Horde formally ceased to exist.
Ulus Jochi, self-name Great State in the Russian tradition - Golden Horde
- a medieval state in Eurasia.
In the period from 1224 to 1266 it was part of the Mongol Empire. In 1266, under Khan Mengu-Timur, it gained complete independence, retaining only formal dependence on the imperial center. Since 1312, Islam became the state religion. By the middle of the 15th century, the Golden Horde split into several independent khanates. Its central part, which nominally continued to be considered supreme - the Great Horde, ceased to exist at the beginning of the 16th century.
Story
The division of the Mongol Empire by Genghis Khan between his sons, carried out by 1224, can be considered the emergence of the Ulus of Jochi. After the Western campaign led by Jochi’s son Batu (in Russian chronicles, Batu), the ulus expanded to the west and the Lower Volga region became its center. In 1251, a kurultai was held in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, where Mongke, the son of Tolui, was proclaimed great khan. Batu, “the eldest of the family,” supported Mongke, probably hoping to gain full autonomy for his ulus. Opponents of the Jochids and Toluids from the descendants of Chagatai and Ogedei were executed, and the possessions confiscated from them were divided between Mongke, Batu and other Chingizids who recognized their power.
Rise of the Golden Horde. After Batu's death, his son Sartak, who was in Mongolia at that time, was to become the legal heir. But on the way home, the new khan unexpectedly died. Soon the young son of Batu Ulagchi, proclaimed khan, also died.
Berke, Batu's brother, became the ruler of the ulus. Berke converted to Islam in his youth, but this was, apparently, a political step that did not entail the Islamization of large sections of the nomadic population. This step allowed the ruler to gain the support of influential trading circles in the urban centers of Volga Bulgaria and Central Asia and to attract educated Muslims to the service. During his reign, urban planning reached significant proportions; Horde cities were built up with mosques, minarets, madrassas, and caravanserais. This primarily applies to Saray-Batu, the capital of the state, which at this time became known as Saray-Berke. Berke invited scientists, theologians, poets from Iran and Egypt, and artisans and merchants from Khorezm. Trade and diplomatic ties with the countries of the East have noticeably revived. Highly educated people from Iran and Arab countries began to be appointed to responsible government posts, which caused discontent among the Mongolian and Kipchak nomadic nobility. However, this dissatisfaction has not yet been openly expressed. During the reign of Mengu-Timur, the Ulus of Jochi became completely independent of the central government. In 1269, at a kurultai in the valley of the Talas River, Munke-Timur and his relatives Borak and Khaidu, rulers of the Chagatai ulus, recognized each other as independent sovereigns and entered into an alliance against the Great Khan Kublai Khan in case he tried to challenge their independence.
After the death of Mengu-Timur, a political crisis associated with the name of Nogai began in the country. Nogai, one of the descendants of Genghis Khan, held the post of beklarbek, the second most important in the state, under Batu and Berke. His personal ulus was located in the west of the Golden Horde. Nogai set as his goal the formation of his own state, and during the reign of Tuda-Mengu and Tula-Buga, he managed to subjugate a vast territory along the Danube, Dniester, and Uzeu (Dnieper) to his power.
Tokhta was placed on the Sarai throne. At first, the new ruler obeyed his patron in everything, but soon, relying on the steppe aristocracy, he opposed him. The long struggle ended in 1299 with the defeat of Nogai, and the unity of the Golden Horde was again restored. During the reign of Khan Uzbek and his son Janibek, the Golden Horde reached its peak. The Uzbek proclaimed Islam the state religion, threatening the “infidels” with physical violence. The revolts of the emirs who did not want to convert to Islam were brutally suppressed. The time of his khanate was characterized by strict reprisals. Russian princes, going to the capital of the Golden Horde, wrote spiritual wills and paternal instructions to their children in case of their death there. Several of them were actually killed. Uzbek built the city of Saray al-Jedid and paid a lot of attention to the development of caravan trade. Trade routes became not only safe, but also well-maintained. The Horde traded with countries Western Europe, Asia Minor, Egypt, India, China. After Uzbek, his son Janibek, whom Russian chronicles call “kind,” ascended the throne of the khanate. From 1359 to 1380, more than 25 khans changed on the Golden Horde throne, and many uluses tried to become independent. This time in Russian sources was called the “Great Jam.” 
The rights to the Horde throne of the impostor Kulpa were immediately questioned by the son-in-law and at the same time the beklyaribek of the murdered khan, Temnik Mamai. As a result, Mamai, who was the grandson of Isatai, an influential emir of the times of Uzbek Khan, created an independent ulus in the western part of the Horde, right up to the right bank of the Volga. Not being Genghisid, Mamai had no rights to the title of khan, so he limited himself to the position of beklyaribek under the puppet khans from the Batuid clan. Khans from Ulus Shiban, descendants of Ming-Timur, tried to gain a foothold in Sarai. They really failed to do this; the khans changed with kaleidoscopic speed. The fate of the khans largely depended on the favor of the merchant elite of the cities of the Volga region, which was not interested in the strong power of the khan.
Troubles in the Golden Horde ended after Genghisid Tokhtamysh, with the support of Emir Tamerlane from Transoxiana in 1377-1380, first captured the uluses on the Syr Darya, defeating the sons of Urus Khan, and then the throne in Sarai, when Mamai came into direct conflict with the Moscow principality. In 1380, Tokhtamysh defeated the remnants of troops gathered by Mamai after the defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo on the Kalka River.
Collapse of the Golden Horde. In the sixties of the 13th century, important political changes took place in the life of the former empire of Genghis Khan, which could not but affect the nature of Horde-Russian relations. The accelerated collapse of the empire began. The rulers of Karakorum moved to Beijing, the uluses of the empire acquired actual independence, independence from the great khans, and now rivalry intensified between them, acute territorial disputes arose, and a struggle for spheres of influence began. In the 60s, the Jochi ulus became involved in a protracted conflict with the Hulagu ulus, which owned the territory of Iran. It would seem that the Golden Horde had reached the apogee of its power. But here and within it, the process of disintegration, inevitable for early feudalism, began. “Splitting” began in the Horde 
state structure, and now a conflict arose within the ruling elite. In the early 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed, the Uzbek Khanate in 1428, the Nogai Horde in the 1440s, then the Kazan, Crimean Khanates and the Kazakh Khanate arose in 1465. After the death of Khan Kichi-Muhammad, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state. The Great Horde continued to be formally considered the main one among the Jochid states. In 1480, Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt ended unsuccessfully, and Rus' was finally freed from Tatar-Mongol yoke. At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed during an attack on his headquarters by Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Great Horde ceased to exist.
Golden Horde: myths and reality
At the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongol tribes, united under the rule of Genghis Khan, began campaigns of conquest, the goal of which was to create a huge superpower. Already in the 2nd half of the 13th century, the space from Pacific Ocean to the Danube came under the control of the Genghisids. Immediately after its appearance, the gigantic empire was divided into separate parts, the largest of which was the ulus of the descendants of Jochi (the eldest son of Genghis Khan), which included Western Siberia, part of Central Asia, the Urals, the Middle and Lower Volga region, the North Caucasus, Crimea, the lands of the Cumans and other Turkic nomadic peoples. The western part of the Dzhuchiev ulus became the yurt of Dzhuchi’s son Batu and received the name “Golden Horde” or simply “Horde” in Russian chronicles.
Start political history The Golden Horde dates back to 1243, when Batu returned from a campaign in Europe. In the same year, Grand Duke Yaroslav was the first of the Russian rulers to arrive at the headquarters of the Mongol Khan for a label to reign. The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages. Its military power had no equal for a long time. The rulers of even distant countries sought friendship with the Horde. The most important trade routes connecting the East and West passed through the territories of the Horde. 
Stretching from the Irtysh to the Danube, the Golden Horde from an ethnic point of view represented a motley mixture of various peoples - Mongols, Volga Bulgars, Russians, Burtases, Bashkirs, Mordovians, Yasses, Circassians, Georgians, etc. But the bulk of the Horde’s population were Polovtsy, among whom, already in the 14th century, the conquerors began to dissolve, forgetting their culture, language, and writing. The multinational character of the Horde was inherited by it along with the conquered territories that previously belonged to the states of the Sarmatians, Goths, Khazaria, and Volga Bulgaria.
One of the stereotypical ideas about the Golden Horde is that this state was purely nomadic and had almost no cities. This stereotype transfers the situation from the time of Genghis Khan to the entire history of the Golden Horde. Already the successors of Genghis Khan clearly understood that “you cannot rule the Celestial Empire while sitting on a horse.” More than a hundred cities were created in the Golden Horde, serving as administrative, tax, trade and craft centers. The capital of the state - the city of Saray - had 75 thousand inhabitants. By medieval standards it was a huge city. The vast majority of the Golden Horde cities were destroyed by Timur at the end of the 14th century, but some have survived to this day - Azov, Kazan, Old Crimea, Tyumen, etc. Cities and villages were built on the Golden Horde territory. predominance of the Russian population - Yelets, Tula, Kaluga. These were the residences and stronghold garrisons of the Baskas. Thanks to the union of cities with the steppe, crafts and caravan trade developed, and economic potential was created, which for a long time contributed to the preservation of the power of the Horde. 
Cultural life of the Horde characterized by multi-ethnicity, as well as the interaction of nomadic and sedentary lifestyles. In the initial period of the Golden Horde, culture developed largely due to the consumption of the achievements of the conquered peoples. This does not mean, however, that the Mongolian substrate of the Golden Horde culture did not have independent significance and influence on the conquered tribes. The Mongols had a complex and very unique ritual system. Unlike the situation in neighboring Muslim countries, the role of women in the public life of the Horde was quite high. Very characteristic of the Mongols was an extremely calm attitude towards any religions. Religious tolerance led to the fact that very often, even in the same family, adherents of different confessions coexisted peacefully. Traditional folk culture- especially rich and vibrant folklore of a heroic-epic and song nature, as well as ornamental and applied art. The most important cultural feature of the nomadic Mongols was the presence of their own written language.
City building accompanied by the development of architecture and house-building technology. After the adoption of Islam as the state religion in the 14th century, the construction of mosques, minarets, madrassas, mausoleums, and monumental palaces began intensively. In different regions of the Golden Horde, zones of specific influence of various urban planning traditions - Bulgar, Khorezm, Crimean - were quite clearly identified. Gradually, various elements of a multi-ethnic culture were united into one whole, developing into a synthesis, into an organic combination of various features of the spiritual and material culture of the different peoples inhabiting the Golden Horde. Unlike Iran and China, where Mongolian culture quickly and easily dissolved without noticeable traces, in the Golden Horde the cultural achievements of different peoples merged into one stream.
One of the most polemical in Russian historiography is the question of relations between Russia and the Horde. In 1237-1240, the Russian lands, divided in military and political terms, were defeated and devastated by Batu's troops. The Mongol attacks on Ryazan, Vladimir, Rostov, Suzdal, Galich, Tver, and Kyiv left the Russian people with an impression of shock. After Batu's invasion in the Vladimir-Suzdal, Ryazan, Chernigov, and Kiev lands, more than two-thirds of all settlements were destroyed. Both urban and rural residents were massacred. It is difficult to doubt that the Mongol aggression brought cruel misfortunes to the Russian people. But in historiography there were other assessments. The Mongol invasion inflicted a severe wound on the Russian people. During the first ten years after the invasion, the conquerors did not take tribute, engaging only in looting and destruction. But such a practice meant a voluntary renunciation of long-term benefits. When the Mongols realized this, the collection of systematic tribute began, which became a constant source of replenishment of the Mongol treasury. Relations between Rus' and the Horde took predictable and stable forms - a phenomenon called the “Mongol yoke” was born. At the same time, however, the practice of periodic punitive campaigns did not stop until the 14th century. According to V.V. Kargalov’s calculations, in the last quarter of the 13th century. The Horde conducted at least 15 major campaigns. Many Russian princes were subjected to terror and intimidation in order to prevent anti-Horde protests on their part.
Russian-Horde
Chinese relations were not easy, but to reduce them only to total pressure on Rus' would be a delusion. Even S. M. Solovyov clearly and unambiguously “separated” the period of devastation of Russian lands by the Mongols and the subsequent period when they, living far away, cared only about collecting tribute. With a general negative assessment of the “yoke,” the Soviet historian A.K. Leontyev emphasized that Rus' retained its statehood and was not directly included in the Golden Horde. A. L. Yurganov assesses the influence of the Mongols on Russian history negatively, but he also admits that although “the disobedient were humiliatingly punished... those princes who willingly obeyed the Mongols, as a rule, found a common language with them and even moreover, became related, stayed in the Horde for a long time.” The originality of Russian-Horde relations becomes understandable only in the context of that historical era. In the middle of the 13th century, decentralized Rus' was subjected to double aggression - from the East and from the West. At the same time, Western aggression brought no less misfortunes: it was prepared and financed by the Vatican, which injected into it a charge of Catholic fanaticism. In 1204, the crusaders sacked Constantinople, then turned their attention to the Baltic states and Rus'. Their pressure was no less cruel than that of the Mongols: the German knights completely destroyed the Sorbs, Prussians, and Livs. In 1224. they massacred the Russian population of the city of Yuryev, making it clear what would await the Russians if the Germans successfully advanced to the east. The goal of the crusaders - the defeat of Orthodoxy - affected the vital interests of the Slavs and many Finns. The Mongols were religiously tolerant; they could not seriously threaten the spiritual culture of the Russians. And in terms of territorial conquests, the Mongol campaigns differed markedly from the Western expansion: after the initial attack on Rus', the Mongols retreated back to the steppe, and they did not reach Novgorod, Pskov, and Smolensk at all. The Catholic offensive went along the entire front: Poland and Hungary rushed to Galicia and Volyn, the Germans to Pskov and Novgorod, the Swedes landed on the banks of the Neva.
State system in the Golden Horde
During the first century of its existence Golden Horde was one of the uluses Great Mongol Empire. The descendants of Genghis Khan ruled the Golden Horde even after the fall of the empire, and when the Horde collapsed, they owned the states that replaced it. The Mongol aristocracy was the highest stratum of society in the Golden Horde. Therefore, government in the Golden Horde was based mainly on the principles that guided the government of the empire as a whole. The Mongols constituted a national minority in Golden Horde society. The majority of the population in the Horde were Turks. 
From a religious point of view, the spread of Islam among both the Mongols and the Turks in the Horde became a factor of great importance. Gradually, Muslim institutions established themselves along with the Mongol ones. Most of the Mongols of the Golden Horde came from the four thousand army that was transferred to Jochi by Genghis Khan; they belonged to the Khushin, Kyiyat, Kynkyt and Saijut tribes. In addition, there were also Mangkyts, but they, as we know, kept aloof from the rest and, since the time of Nogai, formed a separate horde. As already mentioned, the Turks were recognized as full members of the steppe society. In the western part of the Golden Horde, the Turkic element was represented mainly by the Kipchaks (Cumans), as well as a remnant of the Khazars and Pechenegs. To the east of the middle Volga, in the Kama River basin, lived the remaining Bulgars and semi-Turkified Ugrians. To the east of the lower Volga, the Mangkyt and other Mongol clans ruled over a number of Turkic tribes, such as the Kipchaks and Oghuzs, most of whom mixed with the Iranian aborigines. The numerical superiority of the Turks made it natural that the Mongols should gradually become Turkicized, and the Mongolian language, even within the ruling classes, should give way to the Turkic. Diplomatic correspondence with foreign countries was conducted in Mongolian, but most of the documents from the late 14th and 15th centuries concerning internal administration that we know are in the Turkic language. 
From an economic point of view, the Golden Horde was a symbiosis of nomadic and sedentary populations. The South Russian and North Caucasian steppes provided the Mongols and Turks with vast pastures for herds and livestock. On the other hand, some parts of this territory on the periphery of the steppes were also used for growing cereals. The country of the Bulgars in the region of the middle Volga and Kama was also agricultural with highly developed agriculture; and, of course, Western Rus' and the southern principalities of Central and Eastern Rus', especially Ryazan, produced grain in abundance. Sarai and other large cities of the Golden Horde, with their highly developed crafts, served as points of intersection between nomadism and sedentary civilization. Both the khan and the princes lived part of the year in cities, and during the other part of the year they followed their herds. Most of them also owned land. A significant part of the urban population lived there permanently, so that an urban class was created, consisting of a variety of ethnic, social and religious elements. Both Muslims and Christians had their own temples in every major city. Cities played a role of primary importance in the development of Golden Horde trade. The complex economic organism of the Horde was focused on international trade, and it was from this that the khans and nobles received a large share of their income.
Organization of the army in the Golden Horde was built mainly according to the Mongolian type established by Genghis Khan, with decimal division. Army units were grouped into two main battle formations: the right wing, or western group, and the left wing, or eastern group. The center, in all likelihood, was the khan's guard under his personal command. Each large army unit was assigned a bukaul. As in other parts of the Mongol Empire, the army formed the basis of the khan's administration; each army unit was subordinate to a separate region in the Horde. From this point of view, we can say that for administrative purposes the Golden Horde was divided into myriads, thousands, hundreds and tens. The commander of each unit was responsible for order and discipline in his area. All together, they represented local government in the Golden Horde. 
The label on the immunity of Khan Timur-Kutlug from 800 AH, issued to the Crimean Tarkhan Mehmet, was addressed to “the oglans of the right and left wings; venerable commanders of myriads; and commanders of thousands, hundreds and tens.” For the collection of taxes and other purposes, the military administration was assisted by a number of civilian officials. Timur-Kutlug's label mentions tax collectors, messengers, people serving horse-mail stations, boatmen, officials in charge of bridges, and market police. An important official was the state customs inspector, who was called a daruga. The basic meaning of the root of this Mongolian word is "to press" in the sense of "to stamp" or "to stamp". The duties of the daruga included overseeing the collection of taxes and recording the amount collected. The entire system of administration and taxation was controlled by central boards. In each of them, the business was, in fact, conducted by a secretary. Chief Bitikchi was in charge of the Khan's archive. Sometimes the khan entrusted general supervision of the internal administration to a special official, whom Arab and Persian sources, speaking of the Golden Horde, call the “vizier.” It is unknown whether this was actually his title. Officials at the khan's court, such as stewards, butlers, falconers, keepers of wild animals, and huntsmen, also played important roles.
The legal proceedings consisted of the Supreme Court and local courts. The competence of the first included the most important matters affecting state interests. It should be remembered that a number of Russian princes appeared before this court. Judges of local courts were called yarguchi. According to Ibn Batuta, each court consisted of eight such judges chaired by the chief. He was appointed by a special yarlyk of the khan. In the 14th century, a Muslim judge, along with lawyers and scribes, also attended sessions of the local court. All matters falling under Islamic law were related to it. Due to the fact that trade played important role In the economy of the Golden Horde, it was quite natural that merchants, especially those who had access to foreign markets, enjoyed great respect from the khan and the nobles. Although not officially associated with the government, eminent merchants could quite often influence the direction of internal affairs and foreign relations. In fact, Muslim merchants were an international corporation that controlled the markets of Central Asia, Iran and Southern Rus'. Individually, they swore an oath of allegiance to one or another ruler, depending on the circumstances. Collectively, they preferred peace and stability in all countries with which they had to deal. Many of the khans were financially dependent on the merchants, since they controlled large amounts of capital and were able to lend money to any khan whose treasury was depleted. Merchants were also willing to collect taxes when required of them, and were useful to the khan in many other ways.
The bulk of the urban population were craftsmen and a wide variety of workers. In the early period of the formation of the Golden Horde, gifted artisans captured in conquered countries became slaves of the khan. Some of them were sent to the Great Khan in Karakorum. The majority, obliged to serve the Khan of the Golden Horde, settled in Sarai and other cities. Mostly they were natives of Khorezm and Rus'. Later, free workers also, apparently, began to flock to the craft centers of the Golden Horde, mainly to Sarai. The label of Tokhtamysh dated 1382, issued to Khoja-Bek, mentions “elder artisans.” From this we can conclude that artisans were organized into guilds; most likely, each craft formed a separate guild. One craft was given a special part of the city for workshops. According to evidence from archaeological research, in Sarai there were forges, knife and weapon workshops, factories for the production of agricultural implements, as well as bronze and copper vessels.
Historians consider the year 1243 to be the beginning of the creation of the Golden Horde. At this time, Batu returned from his campaign of conquest in Europe. At the same time, the Russian prince Yaroslav first arrived at the court of the Mongol khan to obtain a label for reign, that is, the right to rule the Russian lands. The Golden Horde is rightfully considered one of the largest powers.
The size and military power of the Horde in those years were unparalleled. Even the rulers of distant states sought friendship with the Mongolian state.
The Golden Horde stretched for thousands of kilometers, ethnically representing a mixture of the most diverse. The state included Mongols, Volga Bulgars, Mordovians, Circassians, and Polovtsians. The Golden Horde inherited its multinational character after the Mongols conquered many territories.
How the Golden Horde was formed
In the vast steppes of central Asia, tribes united under the general name “Mongols” roamed the vast steppes of central Asia for a long time. They had property inequality; they had their own aristocracy, which gained wealth during the seizure of pastures and lands of ordinary nomads.
There was a fierce and bloody struggle between individual tribes, which ended in the creation of a feudal state with a powerful military organization.
In the early 30s of the 13th century, a detachment of thousands of Mongol conquerors entered the Caspian steppes, where the Polovtsians roamed at that time. Having previously conquered the Bashkirs and Volga Bulgars, the Mongols began to seize Polovtsian lands. These vast territories were taken over by the eldest son of Genghis Khan, Khan Jochi. His son Batu (Batu, his name in Rus') finally strengthened his power over this ulus. Batu made the headquarters of his state in the Lower Volga in 1243.
The political formation headed by Batu in the historical tradition later received the name “Golden Horde”. It should be noted that it was not the Mongols themselves who called it this way. They called it "Ulus Jochi". The term “Golden Horde” or simply “Horde” appeared in historiography much later, around the 16th century, when nothing remained of the once powerful Mongol state.
The choice of location for the Horde control center was made by Batu consciously. The Mongol Khan appreciated the dignity of the local meadows, which were perfectly suitable for the pastures that horses and livestock needed. The Lower Volga is a place where the paths of caravans crossed, which the Mongols could easily control.
