Учебник предназначен для студентов тех институтов и факультетов иностранных языков, в которых курс практической грамматики читается на английском языке. Учебник содержит развернутое описание частей речи, краткие сведения о структуре предложения. Последовательно проводится стиллистическая дифференциация грамматических явлений.
Тщательный подбор иллюстративных примеров, которые содержат общеупотребительную лексику, но вместе с тем являются образцами хорошего литературного языка, обеспечивают повышение общего уровня владения языком.
Рекомендуется использовать в комплекте со «Сборником упражнений по грамматике английского языка» И. П. Крыловой.
FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB.
Tense, Aspect and Phase.
Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. The category of tense in English is made up by a set of forms opposed to each other in referring the event or state described to the present, past or future.
Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is regarded. There are two opposing sets of aspect forms in English - the Continuous forms and the Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms. The Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms have a very broad meaning, they have no specialized aspect characteristics of their own and merely represent an action as occurring. Conversely, the Continuous forms have a clear-cut aspect characteristic, which is to represent an action in its temporary development. The Continuous forms have a number of other concomitant meanings or overtones that go with the basic meaning of process and duration. They are incompletion, simultaneity, vividness of description, emotional colouring and emphasis.
Besides, there are the Perfect forms which are opposed to the Non-Perfect forms. The latter have no definite grammatical characteristics. The grammatical meaning of the Perfect forms is to express retrospectiveness, which consists of two elements - priority and relevance. In some grammars this category has been given the name phase.
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И. П. Крылова Е. М. Гордон
Грамматика
УДК 802.0(075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ-2
Крылова И. П., Гордон Е. М.
К85 Грамматика современного английского языка: Учебник для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз. - 9-е изд. - М.: Книжный дом «Университет»: Высшая школа, 2003. - 448 с. - На англ. яз.
ISBN 5-8013-0168-2 (Книжный дом «Университет»)
ISBN 5-06-004669-9 (Высшая школа)
Учебник предназначен для студентов тех институтов и факультетов иностранных языков, в которых курс практической грамматики читается на английском языке. Учебник содержит развернутое описание частей речи, краткие сведения о структуре предложения. Последовательно проводится стиллистическая дифференциация грамматических явлений.
Тщательный подбор иллюстративных примеров, которые содержат общеупотребительную лексику, но вместе с тем являются образцами хорошего литературного языка, обеспечивают повышение общего уровня владения языком.
УДК 802.0(075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ-2
ISBN 5-8013-0168-2
(Книжный дом «Университет»)
ISBN 5-06-004669-9
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
"A Grammar of Present-Day English" - учебник, предназначенный для студентов институтов иностранных языков, а также факультетов иностранных языков педагогических институтов и филологических факультетов университетов. Это означает, что учебник рассчитан на студентов, овладевших грамматическим материалом, предусмотренным программой средней школы, т. е. знакомых с основными понятиями морфологии и синтаксиса. Учебник представляет собой практический курс грамматики английского языка. Практическая направленность учебника определяет принципы, положенные в его основу:
2. В учебнике описываются грамматические нормы английского языка, иными словами, объясняются типичные явления, которые и должны усваиваться студентами. В ряде случаев упоминаются также и отклонения от норм, если они необходимы студентам для правильного понимания читаемой литературы, но при этом всегда делается специальная оговорка. Редкие отклонения от норм вообще не включены в учебник.
4. Один из ведущих принципов, положенных в основу учебника, заключается в том, что студенты должны изучать хорошие образцы английского языка. Это относится как к формулированию правил, так
и к примерам, которые их иллюстрируют. Поэтому особое внимание уделялось подбору иллюстративного материала. Авторы стремились к тому, чтобы примеры содержали употребительную лексику и одновременно оставались бы хорошими образцами английского языка и чтобы учебник, таким образом, помогал студентам совершенствовать их зна - ния. Следует заметить, что количество примеров варьируется в учебнике в зависимости от употребительности того или иного грамматического явления и от объема раздела, который он иллюстрирует.
Кроме того, в учебник включены наиболее употребительные устой-
чивые сочетания (set phrases) и готовые фразы (stereotyped phrases),
возникшие на основе описанных грамматических моделей.
5. В учебнике проводится стилистическая дифференциация грамматических явлений, в частности особая оговорка делается в отноше - нии явлений, типичных только для книжной речи или носящих сугубо разговорный характер. Грамматические модели, которые в стилистическом отношении являются нейтральными, в специальных пояснениях, разумеется, не нуждаются.
6. В учебнике не проводится систематического сопоставления грамматических явлений английского языка с соответствующими яв - лениями в русском языке. Авторы, однако, прибегают к сравнениям с русским языком там, где это необходимо для понимания того или иного явления в английском языке.
Переводы на русский язык отдельных предложений, оборотов, терминов даются лишь там, где возникает опасение, что английский материал будет труден для понимания.
В учебнике отражены следующие признаки частей речи: 1) их семантика, 2) грамматические категории (для изменяемых частей речи),
3) их функции в предложении. Эти критерии, служащие для выделения частей речи в языке, положены в основу описания каждой отдельной части речи, и этот принцип проводится в учебнике систематиче - ски.
Хотя словообразование и сочетаемость с другими частями речи также являются существенными критериями выделения частей речи в языке, авторы не нашли нужным включать эти разделы в учебник. В институтах и на факультетах иностранных языков словообразование обычно входит в курс лексикологии, и включение его в грамматику создало бы ненужное дублирование курсов.
Что касается сочетаемости частей речи, то она фактически отражена в учебнике полностью при описании их синтаксических функций в предложении, и для практического овладения материалом выделение
ее в особый раздел представляется излишним.
Согласно общепризнанной точке зрения, важнейшей частью речи является глагол, который представляет собой ядро предложения. В практическом плане именно употребление глагольных форм представляет для изучающих английский язык наибольшие трудности. Поэтому глаголу в учебнике уделяется самое значительное место, и именно с глагола начинается рассмотрение всех частей речи.
Другим чрезвычайно важным в практическом отношении разделом грамматики является употребление артиклей. Этой теме в учебнике также отводится значительное место.
Стремясь к тому, чтобы учебник максимально способствовал именно практическому овладению грамматикой, авторы по-новому освещают некоторые грамматические явления или вносят дополнения и уточнения к традиционным объяснениям.
Это относится, в первую очередь, к разделам, посвященным глаголу. В учебнике вводится понятие структурной и лексической обусловленности употребления некоторых глагольных форм (см. "Verbs", §8), и преподавателям следует уделять этому вопросу особое внимание. Важную роль в учебнике играет выделение структурных моделей, типичных для употребления некоторых глагольных форм. По-новому освещается употребление формы Present Perfect и форм, служащих для отнесения действия к будущему. Введены дополнительные объяснения к употреблению форм Past Continuous, Past Perfect, Present Perfect Continuous и Past Perfect Continuous, а также к правилам согласования времен и употребления страдательного залога. По возможности просто, без излишней терминологической перегруженности, трактуются формы выражения нереальности, Они тесно связаны с употреблением модальных глаголов, объяснение которых предшествует описанию форм нереальности. Изменения внесены также в описание неличных форм глагола: их специфика выявляется лишь при сопоставлении с предикативными формами, и этому вопросу уделяется много внимания. Детально описывается значение простой формы, объясняются причины относительно редкого употребления аналитических форм. Внесены изменения и в описание функций неличных форм глагола в предложении. Наиболее существенное изменение касается герундия и причастия I, которые по традиции обычно рассматриваются как две различные формы, хотя многие грамматисты указывают, что они фактически не разграничимы. В предлагаемом учебнике они трактуются, вслед за некоторыми лингвистами, как единая форма - the ing-form, способная выполнять в предложении, подобно инфинитиву, самые разнообразные функции. Для практического овладения материалом такая интерпретация, как показывает опыт, оказывается более эффективной. Авторы рекомендуют изучать употребление инфинитива и инговой формы параллельно по функциям. Например, изучая инфинитив в функции подлежащего, целесообразно одновременно читать материал об инговой форме в той же функции, а также параграфы, в которых эти две функции сравниваются (§§ 181, 209 и 235). Затем следует переходить к другой функции. На этой сравнительной основе построены упражнения в «Сборнике упражнений по грамматике английского языка» И. П. Крыловой. Вопрос раз-
граничения герундия и причастия I представляет интерес скорее для изучающих курс теоретической грамматики английского языка.
По-новому освещается в учебнике также употребление артиклей. Раздел «Краткие сведения о структуре предложения» не претендует
на полное описание синтаксической структуры английского языка, а является скорее справочным материалом, которым следует пользо - ваться в том случае, если, работая над основными главами, студенты сталкиваются с трудностями в определении синтаксических функций тех или иных классов слов. Кроме того, в учебнике используются не совсем традиционные названия некоторых синтаксических функций, объяснение которым также можно найти в этом разделе.
В учебнике имеется приложение, которое содержит список неправильных глаголов и предметный указатель.
PARTS OF SPEECH IN ENGLISH
The words of every language fall into classes which are called parts of speech. Each part of speech has characteristics of its own. Parts of speech differ from each other in meaning, form and function.
Different parts of speech have different lexical meanings. For example, verbs are words denoting processes (to work, to live); nouns are names of objects (table, boy); adjectives are words expressing characteristics (good, bad), etc.
Some parts of speech have different grammatical categories, e.g. verbs have the categories of mood, tense, aspect, phase, voice, person and number; nouns have the categories of number and case; adjectives have degrees of comparison, etc.
Other parts of speech are invariable, they have only one form. Here belong such parts of speech as prepositions and conjunctions.
Parts of speech also differ from each other in their syntactic functions. For example, verbs have the function of the predicate in the sentence, nouns are often used as the subject or the object of the sentence, adjectives serve as attributes or predicatives; adverbs are generally adverbial modifiers, etc.
These characteristic features will be described in detail when each part of speech is considered individually.
In addition, all words may be divided into two main groups: notional and structural.
Notional words have distinct lexical meanings and perform independent syntactic functions in the sentence: they serve either as primary or secondary parts of the sentence. To this group belong the following parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns and adverbs.
Structural words differ from notional words semantically: their lexical meaning is of a more general character than that of notional words (e.g. in, and, even). Moreover, they are sometimes altogether devoid of it (e.g. the articles the and a, the conjunction that, the preposition of, e t c .) . Structural words do not perform
any independent syntactic function in the sentence but serve either to express various relations between words in a sentence (e.g. the trees in the garden, Tom and Joe, etc.) or to specify the meaning of a word (e.g. the book, a book, etc.). The following parts of speech are to be treated as structural words: articles, prepositions and conjunctions.
The division of words into notional and structural is connected with certain difficulties. For example, verbs, which, on the whole, are to be treated as notional words, include certain words which serve as structural elements (e.g. modal verbs), some other verbs may function either as notional words or as structural words (e.g. to look is a notional verb in He looked at me and a structural word - a link-verb - in He looked tired; the verb to have is a notional verb in I have a car and a structural word - a modal verb - in I had to do it). Pronouns may be quoted as another example since, on the one hand, they have, like all notional words, independent syntactic functions in the sentence but, on the other hand, they are devoid of distinct lexical meaning.
§ 1. According to content, verbs can be described as words denoting actions, the term "actions" embracing the meaning of activity (e.g. to walk, to speak, to play, to study), process (e.g. to sleep, to wait, to live), state (e.g. to be, to like, to know), relation (e.g. to consist, to resemble, to lack) and the like.
According to form, verbs can be described as words that have certain grammatical features that are not shared by other parts of speech, e.g. they have the categories of tense, aspect, voice, etc.
According to function, verbs can be defined as words making up the predicate of the sentence.
§ 2. Verbs can be classified under different heads.
1) According to their meaning verbs can be divided into two groups - terminative and durative verbs.
Terminative verbs imply a limit beyond which the action can - not continue. To put it differently, they have a final aim in view, e.g. to open, to close, to bring, to recognize, to refuse, to break.
With the verb to open, for example, that means that after opening the door it is impossible to go on with the action as the door is al - ready open.
Durative verbs do not imply any such limit, and the action can go on indefinitely, e.g. to carry, to live, to speak, to know, to sit, to play.
But as most verbs in English are polysemantic they may be terminative in one meaning and durative in another. For example, to see may have the terminative meaning "увидеть" and the durative meaning "видеть"; to know may denote "знать" and "узнатьThe meaning of the verb becomes clear from the context. Compare: I saw him at once and I saw his face quite clearly. As will be seen, the distinction between terminative and durative verbs is of great importance as it affects the use of certain tense -aspect-phase forms.
2) According to their relation to the continuous form, English verbs fall into two groups: dynamic verbs, i.e. verbs which admit of the continuous form (a) and stative verbs, i.e. verbs which do not admit of the continuous form (b).
e.g. a) We were eating dinner when he called.
You"ll find Mother in the kitchen. She is making a cake, b) I understand what you mean.
I don"t see him in the crowd.
The distinction between dynamic, and stative verbs is funda - mental in English grammar, and it is also reflected in a number of other ways than in the continuous form.
It is normal for verbs to be dynamic, and even the minority that are almost always stative can be given a dynamic use on occasion.
The following is the list of most commonly used stative verbs:
a) verbs denoting physical perceptions: to hear, to notice, to see;
b) verbs denoting emotions: to adore, to care for, to detest, to dislike, to hate, to like, to love, to respect;
c) verbs denoting wish: to desire, to want, to wish;
d) verbs denoting mental processes: to admire (= to be of high opinion), to appreciate, to assume, to believe (= to consider), to con sider (= to regard), to doubt, to expect (= to suppose), to feel (= to consider), to imagine, to know, to mind (= to object), to perceive, to presume, to recall, to recognize, to recollect, to regard, to remember, to suppose, to think (= to consider), to trust, to understand;
e) relational verbs: to apply, to be, to belong, to concern, to consist, to contain, to depend, to deserve, to differ, to equal, to fit, to have, to hold (= to contain), to include, to involve, to lack, to matter, to need, to owe, to own, to possess, to remain, to require, to resemble, to result, to signify, to suffice;
f) some other verbs: to agree, to allow, to appear (= to seem),
to astonish, to claim, to consent, to displease, to envy, to fail to do, to feel (intr) l , to find, to forbid, to forgive, to intend, to interest, to keep doing, to manage to do, to mean, to object, to please,
to prefer, to prevent, to puzzle, to realize, to refuse, to remind, to satisfy, to seem, to smell (intr), 1 to sound (intr), 1 to succeed, to suit, to surprise, to taste (intr), 1 to tend, to value.
1 As in: The surface feels rough. The song sounds nice. The soup tastes (smells) nice.
3) English verbs are also classified according to the type of object they take. Verbs that do not require any object are called intransitive.
e.g. We walked across the fields.
Nobody knew where the old man lived.
Verbs that require some kind of object to complete their meaning are called transitive. The objects transitive verbs take may be direct (a), indirect (b) or prepositional (c).
e.g. a) I swear I"m telling the truth.
b) His mother never gave him advice.
c) Now let"s talk of something sensible.
Polysemantic verbs may be transitive in one meaning and intransitive in another.
e.g. I didn"t know where to find him as he had changed his address. I was glad to see that he had not changed at all.
He ran uphill past a block of houses. She ran the shop quite competently.
§ 3. According to their meaning and function in the sentence English verbs are classified into notional and structural ones.
Notional verbs always have a lexical meaning of their own and can have an independent syntactic function in the sentence.
e.g. During the war he lived in London.
When a verb is used as a structural word, it may either pre - serve or lose its lexical meaning. But even if it has a lexical meaning of its own, the latter is of a specific character and the verb cannot have an independent syntactic function in the sentence - it is always closely connected with some other word. Here belong modal verbs and link-verbs.
A modal verb is always accompanied by an infinitive - together they form a modal predicate.
e.g. The party is at eight. You must dress suitably for it. I couldn"t do anything under the circumstances.
A link-verb is followed by a predicative; together they form a nominal predicate.
e.g. He was a middle-aged man.
It became very hot by noon.
The hotel remained empty all through the winter. The cottage seemed deserted.
Sometimes a verb is entirely devoid of lexical meaning and is then called an auxiliary verb. Combined with a notional verb it serves to build up analytical forms.
e.g. We had arranged to meet in the usual place. Do you know why he said that?
The young man was sitting at the table alone.
Polysemantic verbs may be notional as well as structural words.
e.g. He is married and has three children (a notional verb used in the meaning "to possess").
I had to reconsider my position (a structural word: a modal verb denoting obligation, part of a modal predicate).
"It has happened now," he said, "so there"s nothing to do"
(a structural word: an auxiliary verb which serves to build up an analytical form).
He looked at me, waiting for the next words (notional verb meaning "glanced").
He looked quite happy (a structural word: a link-verb meaning "seemed").
§ 4. English verbs are characterized by a great variety of forms which can be divided into two main groups according to the function they perform in the sentence: the finite forms and the non-fi- nite forms.
The finite forms have the function of the predicate in the sentence and may also be called the predicative forms.
The non-finite or non-predicative forms can have various other functions; they are used as the predicate of the sentence only by way of exception. These forms are often called the verbals (see "Verbs", §§ 163-254).
The finite forms of the verb have the following grammatical categories:
1) Person and Number. These categories of the verb serve to show the connection between the subject and the predicate of the
sentence - the subject agrees with the predicate in person and number. We find three persons (the first, the second, and the third) and two numbers (the singular and the plural) in finite verbs (see the formation of finite forms, "Verbs", §§ 9, 11, 15, 17, 22, 25, 29, 33, 38, 40, 43, 45).
2) Tense, Aspect and Phase (see "Verbs", § 7).
3) Voice (see "Verbs", §§ 61-63).
4) Mood (see "Verbs", §§ 122-125).
§ 5. The forms that serve to express the above mentioned grammatical categories may be built up in different ways.
We find three basic forms that serve as a foundation for building up all the other forms of the English verb. These forms are: 1) the plain verb stem which is also often referred to as the infinitive without the particle to, 2) the Past Indefinite, and 3) the participle.
According to the way of forming the Past Indefinite and the participle, all verbs can be divided into two classes: regular and irregular verbs.
With regular verbs, the Past Indefinite and the participle are formed by adding the suffix -ed. It is pronounced [d] after vowels and voiced consonants (e.g. played, answered, opened, closed), [t] after voiceless consonants (e.g. looked, passed), and after verbs ending in [t] or [d] (e.g. wanted, wasted, ended, landed).
1) Verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant change the -y into -led (e.g. study - studied, envy - envied). But if the -y is preceded by a vowel, it remains unchanged (e.g. play - played, stay - stayed).
2) A final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short stressed vowel or if a verb ends in a stressed -er (-ur) (e.g. stop - stopped, admit - admitted, occur - occurred, prefer - preferred). But if the preceding vowel is long or unstressed, the final consonant remains single (e.g. limit - limited, perform - performed, conquer - conquered, appear - appeared).
3) A final -l is always doubled in British English (e.g. travel - travelled, quarrel - quarrelled).
All other verbs should be regarded as irregular in modern English. They are a miscellaneous group comprising various patterns
(e.g. sing - sang - sung, write - wrote - written, send - sent - sent, teach - taught - taught, etc.)- Some verbs have a regular form by the side of an irregular one (e.g. learn - learnt
Learnt and also learn - learned - learned). A number of verbs remain unchanged (e.g. cut - cut - cut, hit - hit - hit). Two verbs take their forms from different roots and are called suppletive systems. They are the verbs to be and to go. (For a complete list of irregular verbs see Appendix.)
§ 6. The forms of the verb which are built up with the help of the above described basic forms may be of two different kinds - synthetic or analytical.
Synthetic forms are built up by a change in the word itself: by means of suffixes (e.g. I work, he works, we worked), by means of vowel change (e.g. I find, I found), and sometimes by combining both means (e.g. I think, I thought).
Analytical forms consist of two components, e.g. He has worked hard. The first component is an auxiliary verb which has no lexical meaning - it expresses only grammatical meaning. The second component is a notional verb which is the bearer of lexical meaning ("носитель лексического значения"). The auxiliary verb shows that has worked is the third person singular, the Indicative Mood, the Active Voice. But the specific meaning of this particu - lar form, that of the Present Perfect, results only from the combi - nation of both components.
In the analytical form was written (as in: The letter was written yesterday), written is the bearer of lexical meaning; was shows that we are dealing with the third person singular, the Indicative Mood, the Past Indefinite, But again the specific grammatical meaning of this particular form, that of the Passive Voice, is expressed by the whole combination of the auxiliary and the notional verb.
Thus an analytical form consists of two words - a structural word and a notional word - which form a very close, inseparable unit. It functions in English as the form of a single word by the side of synthetic forms (e.g. he works, he has worked, he worked, he was working, he had worked, etc.).
The auxiliary verb itself may be an analytical form (e.g. He has been working. He will be working. The letter has been written, etc.). Such forms may be called complex analytical forms.
FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB
Tense, Aspect and Phase
§ 7. Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. The category of tense in English is made up by a set of forms opposed to each other in referring the event or state de - scribed to the present, past or future.
Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is regarded. There are two opposing sets of aspect forms in English - the Continuous forms and the Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms. The Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms have a very broad meaning, they have no specialized aspect characteristics of their own and merely represent an action as occurring. Conversely, the Continuous forms have a clear -cut aspect characteristic, which is to represent an action in its tempo - rary development. The Continuous forms have a number of other concomitant meanings or overtones that go with the basic meaning of process and duration. They are incompletion, simultaneity, vividness of description, emotional colouring and emphasis.
Besides, there are the Perfect forms which are opposed to the Non-Perfect forms. The latter have no definite grammatical characteristics. The grammatical meaning of the Perfect forms is to express retrospectiveness, which consists of two elements - priority and relevance. In some grammars this category has been given the name phase.
The three grammatical categories of the English verb are so closely merged together that it is impossible to treat them sepa - rately.
We find the following finite forms in English: the Present In - definite, the Present Continuous, the Present Perfect, the Present Perfect Continuous, the Past Indefinite, the Past Continuous, the Past Perfect, the Past Perfect Continuous, the Future Indefinite, the Future Continuous, the Future Perfect, the Future Indefinite - in-the-Past, the Future Continuous-in-the-Past, and the Future Perfect-in-the-Past.
§ 8. 1) In discussing the use of English finite forms it is necessary to understand that in most cases the choice is free: the form is chosen in accordance with the meaning the speaker wishes to
convey and does not depend on the structure of the sentence, e.g.
He knows English. He knew English. He will know English.
In certain cases, however, the choice of the form is determined by the structure of the sentence, usually the kind of clause in which it is used. For example, the use of t he Present Indefinite with reference to the future in a clause of time or condition (a), or the use of a finite form under the rules of the sequence of tenses (b).
e.g. a) When you feel hungry, I"ll bring you some sandwiches. If I want anything I"ll call you up.
b) She knew that Henry would be waiting for her. I wondered if he had kept his promise.
In such cases we have the structurally dependent use of finite forms.
In still other cases the choice of the finite form in a sub - ordinate clause is determined not so much by the kind of clause as by the lexical character of the head-word, i.e. the word in the principal clause which the subordinate clause modifies or refers to. For example, in object clauses subordinated to the verbs to see to, to take care or to make sure the future forms are not used.
e.g. He"ll take care that she comes in time.
She saw to it that they had plenty of food in the house.
In such cases we have the lexically-dependent use of finite forms.
2) Closely connected with the above notion is the absolute and relative use of finite forms. The forms may refer an action direct - ly to the present, past or future time. We are dealing in this case with the absolute use of finite forms, which, as a rule, is structur - ally independent.
But in certain types of clauses the verb form of the sub - ordinate clause only shows whether the action of the clause is si - multaneous with that of the principal clause, precedes it or follows it. (These relations may be termed as simultaneity, priority and posteriority respectively.) In this case we are dealing with the relative use of finite forms. It is usually structurally dependent (see, for example, the rules of the sequence of tenses).
e.g. He discovered that his wife knew London far better than he did. He knew that she had read his thoughts.
He thought that he would hate the place.
3) Last but not least, students of English should differentiate between present-time contexts and past-time contexts.
In present-time contexts, i.e. in conversations, letters, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and scientific prose, the situation is viewed from the moment of speaking. (The moment of speaking is to be understood as present from the speaker"s point of view but not as the present moment.) Any finite form that is re quired by the sense can be used in present-time contexts. The only reservation should be made for the Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous and all the Future-in-the-Past forms which are, in presenttime contexts, mainly found in reported speech or thought.
In past-time contexts, i.e. in narration, the situation is viewed from a past moment. Hence, the use of finite forms is restricted only to past forms including the Future-in-the-Past.
The Present Indefinite
§ 9. The Present Indefinite is formed from the plain stem of the verb. In the third person singular it has the suffix -s/-es which is pronounced after voiceless consonants (e.g. looks, puts), and after sibilants (e.g. closes, places, teaches, wishes, judges).
In writing the following spelling rules should be observed:
a) Verbs ending in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -tch, x and -z take the suffix -es (e.g. passes, pushes, watches). The suffix -es is also added to verbs ending in о preceded by a consonant (e.g. goes).
b) Verbs ending in -y with a preceding consonant change the -y into -ies (e.g. study - studies, try - tries, fly - flies). But if the
У is preceded by a vowel, the suffix -s is added (e.g. play - plays, stay - stays).
The affirmative form of the Present Indefinite is a synthetic form (e.g. I work, he works, etc.). But the interrogative and negative forms are built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb do in the Present Indefinite and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to (e.g. Do you work? Does he work? I do not
work. He does not work, etc.). In spoken English the contracted negative forms don"t and doesn"t should be used.
The Present Indefinite may have a special affirmative form which is used for emphasis. This emphatic form is built up analytically, by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to do followed by the infinitive of the notional verb without the par - ticle to. The auxiliary verb is heavily stressed in this case (e.g. I "do insist on it. He "does insist on it).
§ 10. The Present Indefinite is used in the following cases:
1) When it serves to express recurrent (a) or permanent (b) ac - tions in the present.
a) We find recurrent actions with terminative verbs. They are, as a matter of fact, point (instantaneous) actions repeated a num - ber of times. This series of recurrent actions may include or ex - clude the actual moment of speaking.
This use of the Present Indefinite is often associated with such adverbial modifiers of frequency as often, seldom, sometimes, occasionally, always, never, ever, every year (week, month, day), usual - ly, once {twice, three times) a year, daily, on Sundays (Mondays, etc.) and the like. But it may also be found without any indica - tions of time.
e.g. He wakes up around six o"clock and has a cup of coffee. He doesn"t usually ring up early in the morning.
"Do you often come to these parties?" inquired Jordan of the girl beside her.
The charwoman comes in daily.
b) We find permanent actions with durative verbs. They generally indicate continuous, uninterrupted processes which naturally include the present moment. Such actions give a general character - istic to the person or thing denoted by the subject. Time indica - tions are not obligatory in this case.
e.g. Her son works near here and so, after her husband"s death, she came down to live here and he boards with her.
That old man gave me a surprise. He"s seventy-five, and he doesn"t walk, he runs.
I teach English and History at a college, and I live with my parents.
I hate authority. It spoils the relations between parent and child.
Like all young men, he sleeps like a log.
As is seen from the above examples, the difference between the two main uses of the Present Indefinite rests on the difference in the lexical character of the verb. In many cases, however, owing to the context or situation, the difference appears blurred and it becomes difficult to define the lexical character of the verb. In other words, we are dealing with marginal cases in this instance - a permanent characteristic is given through recurrent actions.
e.g. I always talk too much when I"m nervous.
I sometimes play the piano for five hours a day. He usually walks to the corner with Phil. Edith always gets away with things.
Note. The Present Indefinite is often said to express a general statement or a universal truth. In this case it also denotes either a recurrent action or a perma - nent process and thus it does not differ in principle from the two above described uses of the Present Indefinite.
e.g. Domestic animals return to their homes. Romance only dies with life.
Still waters run deep, (a proverb)
A mother"s love means devotion, unselfishness, sacrifice.
2) When it is used to express a succession of point actions taking place at the time of speaking. In this meaning it is used in stage directions or by radio and TV commentators in describing sports events, public functions, etc. That means that this use of the Present Indefinite is stylistically restricted.
e.g. a) In stage directions:
b) In comments (here on a TV film about Chi -Chi, the giant panda, who returns home after her stay in the Moscow Zoo):
"Chi-Chi is in the pen. She walks over to the travelling box. Chi-Chi climbs on the rock. The crowd moves closer to Chi-Chi."
Part I. ACCIDENCE
Exercise 1. State the morphological composition of the following nouns.
Snow, sandstone, impossibility, widower, opinion, exclamation, passer-by, misunderstanding, inactivity, snowball, kingdom, anticyclone, mother-of-pearl, immobility, might, warmth, succession, ex-president, nurse, misdeed, wisdom, blackbird, attention, policeman, merry-go-round, girlhood, usefulness, fortune, friendship, statesman, brother-in-law, population, fellow-boarder, smelling-salt.
Exercise 2. Point out the nouns and define the class each belongs to.
1. Don"t forget, Pettinger, Europe is still the heart of the world, and Germany the heart of Europe. (Heym) 2. Pursuing his inquiries, Clennam found that the Gowan family were a very distant ramification of the Barnacles... (Dickens) 3. His face was sick with pain and rage. (Maltz) 4. He drank coffee, letting the warmth go through his cold, tired body. (This is America) 5. But there is only one place I met with the brotherhood of man, and it was in the Communist Party. (This is America) 6. The mysteries of storm and the rain and tide were revealed. (Galsworthy) 7. Having set the tea, she stood by the table and said slowly: "Tea"s ready, Father. I"m going to London." (Galsworthy) 8. By this time, quite a small crowd had collected, and people were asking each other what was the matter. (Jerome i(. Jerome) 9. There were several small losses: a spoon used for the baby"s feeding, a pair of scissors. (Lessing) 10. He was professor of physics. (London) 11. A band of dark clouds lay across the sky, and underneath it was the last pale brilliance of the evening. (Murdoch) 12. "I have some luggage," he said, "at the Brumblehurst Station," and he asked her how he could have it. (Wells) 13. In the kitchen Bowen read the telegram aloud. (Amis) 14. The crowd laughed and moved, pushing every way and everybody. (This is America) 15. De Witt fished through his pockets, found his eyeglasses, carefully slipped them out of their case... (Heylri) 16. A stone caught her heel. (Maltz) 17. George suggested meat and fruit pies, cold meat, tomatoes, fruit and green stuff. (Jerome K. Jerome) 18. The silvercoloured carpet felt wonderfully soft beneath his feet, the furniture was of a golden wood. (Galsworthy) 19. The major seemed to be looking out at the sky... (Heytn) 20. Winslow spoke with his usual caustic courtesy. (Snow) 21. The bourgeoisie is cowardly. (London) 22. The moon was shining through the tree stems when they sax again side by side on the log seat. (Galsworthy) 23. "It"s not Sunday, tomorrow," said Karg. (Heytn) 24. He looked down at his audience. (Heyrri) 25. His hair was grey and he was short and fat. (Hemingway)
Exercise 3. Give the plural oi the following nouns.
Face, portfolio, swine, house, tomato, hearth, mother-in-law, basis, clergyman, ox, cry, key, fox, downfall, looker-on, rock, bush, enemy, leaf, roof, genius, hero, bunch, sheep, ship, criterion, youth, journey, penknife, man-of-war, loss, datum, goose, deer, pie, Englishwoman, wolf, mouse, formula, bath, volcano, possibility, forget-me-not, foot, handkerchief, thief, crisis, stepdaughter, birth, echo, finger-tip, court martial, joy, mischief-maker, extremity, spy, lie.
Exercise 4. Use the appropriate form of the verb.
1. "There - money in my pocket," 1 said to the porter, (is, are) (Hemingway) 2. I know my hair __ beautiful, everybody says so. (is, are) (Hardy) 3. The works __ his country, his home, his reason for being, (was, were) (Heym) 4. These white swine - not live, (does, do) (Sabatini) 5. Means __ easily found, (was, were) (Thackeray) 6....this watch __ a special favourite with Mr. Pickwick, having been carried about... for a greater number of years than we feel called upon to state, at present, (was, were) (Dickens) 7. "Good," I said. "No one shall tell me again that fish - no sense with them." (has, have) (Llewellyn) 8. The deer __ ravaging the man"s fields, (was, were) (Twain) 9. Money __ so scarce that it could fairly be said not to exist at all. (was, were) (Dreiser) 10. I was here before the gates __ opened, but I was afraid to come straight to you. (was, were) (Dickens) 11. The papers __ dull, the news _ local and stale, and the war news __ all old. (was, were) (Hemingway) 12. At Capracotta, he had told me, there __ trout in the stream below the town, (was, were) (Hemingway) 13. The sugartongs __ too wide for one of her hands, and she had to use both in wielding them, (was, were) (Ch. Bronte) 14. Her hair __ loose and half-falling, and she wore a nurse"s dress, (was, were) (Hemingway) 15. And the baggage __ apparatus and appliances, (contain, contains) (Wells) 16. The china __ good, of a delicate pattern, (was, were) (Dreiser) 17. The nurse"s wages.: __ good... (was, were) (Collins)
Exercise 5. Explain the use of the genitive case.
1. For four months, since in the canteen she saw Jon"s tired smile, he had been one long thought in her mind. (Galsworthy) 2. Agnes was at her wit"s-end. (Lindsay) 3. Since his illness, however, he had reluctantly abandoned this attempt to get twentyfour hours’ work out of each day. (Murdoch) 4....the Radicals" real supporters were the urban classes. (Galsworthy) 5. To Elizabeth it seemed that the lines with which fear had falsely aged his face were smoothed away, and it was a boy"s face which watched her with a boy"s enthusiasm. (Greene) 6. For his honor"s sake Torn has got to commit suicide. (Saroyan) 7. They were to leave the house without an instant"s delay and go at once to the river"s edge and go aboard a steamer that would be waiting there for them. (Buck) 8. And he lifted his strange lowering eyes to Derek"s. (Galsworthy) 9. I was encouraged when, after Roger had proposed the guest of honor"s health, Lufkin got up to reply. (Snow) 10. "Where are the children?" "I sent them to mother"s." (Cronin) 11. Philip heard a man"s voice talking quickly, but soothingljr, over the phone. (/. Shaw)12. Presently Rex was on his two miles" walk to Offendene. (Eliot) 13. That early morning he had already done a good two hours" work. (Galsworthy) 14. Bowen sat on the veranda of Buckmaster"s house. (Amis) 15. Crime is the product of a country"s social order. (Cronin) 16. I spotted the bride"s father"s uncle"s silk hat on the seat of a straight chair across the room. (Salinger) 17. I spent Christmas at my aunt Emily"s. (Braine) 18. We took some bread and cheese with us and got some goat"s milk up there on the pasture. (Voynich) 19. He was still thinking of next morning"s papers. (Snow) 20. Why, for God"s sake, why must we go through all this hell? (Saroyan) 21. A man stepped out from a tobacconist"s and waved to them, and the car slid to the kerb and. stopped. (Greene) 22. A woman"s love is not worth anything until it has been cleaned of all romanticism. (Murdoch) 23. Her skin was as dry as a child"s with fever. (Greene)
Exercise 6. Put the noun in the genitive case. Explain the use of the genitive case.
1. Well, I"d rather be married to a saint that never saw my good looks than to a sinner who saw every other __. (woman) (Buck) 2. The breakfast table at __ was usually a very pleasant one, and was always presided over by Bella. (Mr. Boffin) (Dickens) 3. "I think __ friendships are much deeper than __," Mrs. Thompson said, (men, women) (Braine) 4. That night he had chosen a basement bar a __ throw from Scotland Yard... (stone) (Hansford Johnson) 5. As he passed through the __ room he saw an evening paper spread out conspicuously on the desk of the __ nephew. (clerks, director) (Greene) 6. But I suppose that need not prevent us from quarrelling to our __ content in future, (heart) (Voynich) 7. With one cold glance could she send me back into childhood with all a lonely __ terrors and shames, (child) (Lindsay) 8. I will even go farther, if you like, and admit, for __ sake and for __ sake, that the identity of Lady Glyde, as a living person, is a proved fact to Miss Hal combe "and yourself, (courtesy, argument) (Collins) 9. He stopped to dinner that evening and much to - satisfaction made a favorable impression on her father. (Ruth) (London) 10. He said to her: "Look at my brother __ property." (James) (Galsworthy) 11. He had not been at __ for nearly two years. (Timothy) (Galsworthy) 12. Benson... was listening among the __ representatives cocking his head on one side, (workers) (Lindsay) 13. He had never thought that a mere __ hand could be sweetly soft, (woman) (London) 14. But he was daunted the next moment by his own and __ insignificance. (Milly) (Greene) 15. But by that time the bride was near the end of the first _ journey towards Florence, (day) (Dickens) 16....he too wished she had remained at home, as did most of the __ families, (congressmen) (Stone) 17. You need a good __ sleep, (night) (Shaw) 18. Haven"t you noticed that other __ bread-and-butter is always much nicer than your own? Robert is like that. He always prefers __ fireside, (people, somebody else) (Maugham) 19. The __ wives were more expensively dressed than the Civil __, and in general more spectacular, (politicians, servants) (Snow) 20. One evening, on the way to the __, I saw Irwing sitting on the steps of his house, (grocer) (Saroyan) 21. I cannot be blamed for all my __ doings, (kin) (Lindsay)
Exercise 7. Translate into English, using a noun in the genitive case where possible.
1. Давид провел две недели в Ярмуте у мистера Пеготти. 2. Уезжая в Ярмут, мальчик ничего не знал о предполагаемом (intended) браке своей матери. 3. После путешествия, которое длилось несколько часов, Пеготти с Давидом прибыли в Ярмут. 4. Приближаясь к дому мистера Пеготти, Давид увидел детскую фигурку, стоявшую на пороге. 5. Дядя Хэма и Эмили усыновил их, когда они были детьми. 6. Пеготти с гордостью говорила о доброте своего брата. 7. Двухнедельное пребывание в Ярмуте доставило Давиду большое удовольствие. 8. В присутствии мужа миссис Копперфильд боялась приласкать своего сына. 9. После минутной нерешительности Давид подошел к миссис Копперфильд и поцеловал ее. 10. После смерти жены мистер Мердстон послал Давида в Лондон, где мальчик должен был работать в торговом доме (warehouse) Мердстона и Гринби.
THE USE OF ARTICLES
Exercise 1. Change the nouns into the plural. Use some (any) where necessary and make the other necessary changes.
1. A kitten likes to play. 2. A violet does not smell so sweet as a lily of the valley. 3. Have you bought an apple for your child? 4. Here is a letter to be posted. 5. He ate a spoonful of broth and a sandwich. 6. I must buy a postcard. 7. She did not bring me a magazine, she brought me a newspaper. 8. She made a step towards him. 9. In the bedroom a candle was burning. 10. Did she ever lend you a book?
Exercise 2. Insert articles where necessary. (Articles with class nouns.)
1. Not __ word was spoken in __ parlour. (Caldwelt) 2. __ room itself was filling up, so was __ staircase. (Snow) 3. I think that __ man"s life is worth saving, whoever it belongs to. (Shaw) 4. Though __ earth was cold and wet, __ sky was clear and __ sun rose bright and beautiful. (Dickens) 5. He made them provide not one car, but half __ dozen. (Snow) 6.. __ compass was invented in ancient China. 7. Not __ word was spoken, not __ sound was made. (Dickens) 8. __ sky outside __ window was already dark, __ secretaries had gone home, all was quiet. (Snow) 9. Edward remained __ week at __ cottage. (Austen) 10. I tell you, he"s as brave as __ man can reasonably be. (Snow) 11. After that they would meet, perhaps, two or three times __ year. (Galsworthy) 12. Dinny looked up at __ house; and suddenly saw __ face in __ window of __ dining-room. (Galsxnorthy) 13. You know I never cared for __ drama. 14. "It is not __ large house," I said. "We don"t want __ large house." (Jerome K. Jercme) 15. He looks older than he is, as __ dark men often do. (Dickens) 16. Roger looked at him and, without __. word, took out his wallet and gave him __ ten-shilling note. (Snow) 17. As __ man sows, so shall he reap. 18. This morning __ tobacconist was at his door. (Bennett) 19. It was Sunday afternoon, and __ sun, which had teen shining now for several hours, was beginning to warm __ earth. (Murdoch) 20. I have __ long story to tell you. Come and sit down on __ sofa and let us have __ comfortable chat. (Marryat) 21. __ arm in __ arm, they walked toward home. (/. Shaw)22. It was __ cottage built like __ mansion, having __ central hall with __ wooden gallery running round it, and __ rooms no bigger than __ closets. (Hardy) 23. And what __ beautiful moth there is over there on-----wall. (Murdoch) 24. She had __ key of her own. (Conan Doyle) 25. He was __ short, plump man with __ very white face and __ very white hands. It was rumoured in London that he powdered them like __ woman. (Greene) 26. __ old couldn"t help __ young... (Galsworthy) 27. To him she would always be __ loveliest woman in __ world. (Maugham) 28. __ strongest have their hours of depression. (Dreiser) 29. Her aunt, in __ straw hat so broad that it covered her to __ very edges of her shoulders, was standing below with two gardeners behind her. (Galsworthy) 30. 1 am afraid I addressed __ wrong person. (Collins) 31. They must have had very fair notions of __ artistic and __ beautiful. (Jerome K. Jerome) 32. __ rich think they can buy anything. (Snow) 33. __ room has three doors; one on __ same side as __ fireplace, near - corner, leading to __ best bedroom. (Shaw) 34. My thousand __ year is not merely. __. matter of dirty banknotes and jaundicedguineas... but, it may be, health to __ drooping, strength to __ weak, consolation to __ sad. (Ch. Bronte) 35. Thank you, Stephen: I knew you would give me __ right advice. (Shaw) 36. Sometimes... visitors rang __ wrong bell. (Bennett) 37. My family came from hereabouts some generations back. I just wanted to have - look at __ place, and ask you __ question or two. (Galsworthy) 38. __ woman will only be "the equal of __ man when she earns her living in __ same way that he does. (Maugham) 39. He arrived half __ hour before dinner time, and went up to __ schoolroom at __ top of __ house, to see __ children. (Galsworthy) 40. You will see him __ steady character yet. I am sure of it. There is something in. __ very expression of his face that tells me so. (Marryat) 41. Far away in __ little street there is __ poor house. One of __ windows is open and through it I can see __ woman seated at __ table. She is __ seamstress. (Wilde) 42. _ man who entered was short and broad. He had black hair, and was wearing __ grey flannel trousers with __ red woollen shirt, open at __ neck, whose collar he carried outside __ lapels of his dark tweed jacket. (Clark) 43. Believe me, when __ woman really makes up her mind to marry __ man nothing on God"s earth can save him. (Maugham) 44. I stopped,., still uncertain of myself and whether I was saying. __ right thing. (Du Maurier) 45, Then it was night and he was awake, standing in __ street, looking up at __ dark windows of __ place where he lived. __ front door was locked and there was no one in __ house. (Saroyan) 46. I believe I can tell __ very.moment I began to love him. (Galsworthy) 47. We are told that __ heart of __ man is deceitful above all __ things, and desperately wicked. (Shaw) 48. "I must do it," said Adam; "it"s __ right thing." (Eliot) 49. Mr. Boythorn lived in __ pretty house with __ lawn in front, __ bright flower garden at __ side and __ kitchen-garden in __ rear, enclosed with __ wall. __ house was __ real old house. (Dickens) 50 __ bartender was __ pale little man in __ vest and apron, with __ pale, hairy arms and __ long, nervous nose. (/. Shaw)51. __ face to __.face, he was as warm and easy-natured as he had ever been. (Snow) 52. 1 had not yet learnt how contradictory is human nature; I did not know how much pose there is in __ sincere, how much baseness in _ noble, or how much goodness in __ reprobate. 10 (Maugham) 53. During __ country house parties one day is very like another. __ men put on __ same kind of variegated tie, eat __ same breakfast, tap __ same barometer, smoke __ same pipes and kill __ same birds. (Galsworthy) 54. Almost at. very moment when r,he had returned Aileen had appeared. (Dreiser) 55. __ old man quitted __ house secretly at __ same hour as before. (Dickens) 56. We are told that __ wicked shall be punished. (Shaw) 57. __ arm in __ arm we walked on, sometimes stumbling over __ hump of earth or catching our feet in __ rabbit-holes. (Hansford lohnson) 58. Clare was __ most vivid member of __ family. She had dark fine shingled hair and __ pale expressive face, of which __ lips were slightly brightened. __ eyes were brown, with __ straight and eager glance, __ brow low and very white. Her expression was old for __ girl of twenty, being calm and yet adventurous. (Galsworthy) 59. When I was __ child my mother used to make __ cakes and send me out with them as __ presents to __ neighbours. And. __ neighbours would give us __ presents too, and not only at Christmas time. (Murdoch) 60. I wrote to __ Managing Editor that this was __ wrong moment to change their correspondent. (Greene)
Transcription
1 И. П. Крылова Е. М. Гордон Грамматика современного английского языка Рекомендовано Министерством общего и профессионального образования Российской Федерации в качестве учебника для студентов институтов и факультетов иностранных языков Москва 2003
2 УДК 802.0(075.8) ББК 81.2 Англ-2 К 85 ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ Крылова И. П., Гордон Е. М. К85 Грамматика современного английского языка: Учебник для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз. 9-е изд. М.: Книжный дом «Университет»: Высшая школа, с. На англ. яз. ISBN (Книжный дом «Университет») ISBN (Высшая школа) Учебник предназначен для студентов тех институтов и факультетов иностранных языков, в которых курс практической грамматики читается на английском языке. Учебник содержит развернутое описание частей речи, краткие сведения о структуре предложения. Последовательно проводится стиллистическая дифференциация грамматических явлений. Тщательный подбор иллюстративных примеров, которые содержат общеупотребительную лексику, но вместе с тем являются образцами хорошего литературного языка, обеспечивают повышение общего уровня владения языком. Рекомендуется использовать в комплекте со «Сборником упражнений по грамматике английского языка» И. П. Крыловой. УДК 802.0(075.8) ББК 81.2 Англ-2 ISBN (Книжный дом «Университет») ISBN (Высшая школа) И. П. Крылова, Е. М. Гордон, 2003 "A Grammar of Present-Day English" учебник, предназначенный для студентов институтов иностранных языков, а также факультетов иностранных языков педагогических институтов и филологических факультетов университетов. Это означает, что учебник рассчитан на студентов, овладевших грамматическим материалом, предусмотренным программой средней школы, т. е. знакомых с основными понятиями морфологии и синтаксиса. Учебник представляет собой практический курс грамматики английского языка. Практическая направленность учебника определяет принципы, положенные в его основу: 1. Авторы не считают возможным в практическом курсе грамматики давать теоретическое обоснование своей точке зрения и ограничиваются лишь практическими выводами. 2. В учебнике описываются грамматические нормы английского языка, иными словами, объясняются типичные явления, которые и должны усваиваться студентами. В ряде случаев упоминаются также и отклонения от норм, если они необходимы студентам для правильного понимания читаемой литературы, но при этом всегда делается специальная оговорка. Редкие отклонения от норм вообще не включены в учебник. 3. Авторы ставят перед собой задачу не только описать грамматические явления современного английского языка, но также представить их так, чтобы предотвратить типичные ошибки. 4. Один из ведущих принципов, положенных в основу учебника, заключается в том, что студенты должны изучать хорошие образцы английского языка. Это относится как к формулированию правил, так и к примерам, которые их иллюстрируют. Поэтому особое внимание уделялось подбору иллюстративного материала. Авторы стремились к тому, чтобы примеры содержали употребительную лексику и одновременно оставались бы хорошими образцами английского языка и чтобы учебник, таким образом, помогал студентам совершенствовать их знания. Следует заметить, что количество примеров варьируется в учебнике в зависимости от употребительности того или иного грамматического явления и от объема раздела, который он иллюстрирует. Кроме того, в учебник включены наиболее употребительные устойчивые сочетания (set phrases) и готовые фразы (stereotyped phrases), возникшие на основе описанных грамматических моделей.
3 5. В учебнике проводится стилистическая дифференциация грамматических явлений, в частности особая оговорка делается в отношении явлений, типичных только для книжной речи или носящих сугубо разговорный характер. Грамматические модели, которые в стилистическом отношении являются нейтральными, в специальных пояснениях, разумеется, не нуждаются. В связи с этим авторы рекомендуют преподавателям привлечь особое внимание студентов к правильному стилистическому использованию грамматических моделей. 6. В учебнике не проводится систематического сопоставления грамматических явлений английского языка с соответствующими яв - лениями в русском языке. Авторы, однако, прибегают к сравнениям с русским языком там, где это необходимо для понимания того или иного явления в английском языке. Переводы на русский язык отдельных предложений, оборотов, терминов даются лишь там, где возникает опасение, что английский материал будет труден для понимания. Авторы считают, что для практических целей овладения английской грамматикой достаточно описания частей речи со всеми их семантическими, морфологическими и синтаксическими особенностями. В учебнике отражены следующие признаки частей речи: 1) их семантика, 2) грамматические категории (для изменяемых частей речи), 3) их функции в предложении. Эти критерии, служащие для выделения частей речи в языке, положены в основу описания каждой отдельной части речи, и этот принцип проводится в учебнике систематически. Хотя словообразование и сочетаемость с другими частями речи также являются существенными критериями выделения частей речи в языке, авторы не нашли нужным включать эти разделы в учебник. В институтах и на факультетах иностранных языков словообразование обычно входит в курс лексикологии, и включение его в грамматику создало бы ненужное дублирование курсов. Что касается сочетаемости частей речи, то она фактически отражена в учебнике полностью при описании их синтаксических функций в предложении, и для практического овладения материалом выделение ее в особый раздел представляется излишним. Согласно общепризнанной точке зрения, важнейшей частью речи является глагол, который представляет собой ядро предложения. В практическом плане именно употребление глагольных форм представляет для изучающих английский язык наибольшие трудности. Поэтому глаголу в учебнике уделяется самое значительное место, и именно с глагола начинается рассмотрение всех частей речи. Другим чрезвычайно важным в практическом отношении разделом грамматики является употребление артиклей. Этой теме в учебнике также отводится значительное место. Стремясь к тому, чтобы учебник максимально способствовал именно практическому овладению грамматикой, авторы по-новому освещают некоторые грамматические явления или вносят дополнения и уточнения к традиционным объяснениям. Это относится, в первую очередь, к разделам, посвященным глаголу. В учебнике вводится понятие структурной и лексической обусловленности употребления некоторых глагольных форм (см. "Verbs", 8), и преподавателям следует уделять этому вопросу особое внимание. Важную роль в учебнике играет выделение структурных моделей, типичных для употребления некоторых глагольных форм. По-новому освещается употребление формы Present Perfect и форм, служащих для отнесения действия к будущему. Введены дополнительные объяснения к употреблению форм Past Continuous, Past Perfect, Present Perfect Continuous и Past Perfect Continuous, а также к правилам согласования времен и употребления страдательного залога. По возможности просто, без излишней терминологической перегруженности, трактуются формы выражения нереальности, Они тесно связаны с употреблением модальных глаголов, объяснение которых предшествует описанию форм нереальности. Изменения внесены также в описание неличных форм глагола: их специфика выявляется лишь при сопоставлении с предикативными формами, и этому вопросу уделяется много внимания. Детально описывается значение простой формы, объясняются причины относительно редкого употребления аналитических форм. Внесены изменения и в описание функций неличных форм глагола в предложении. Наиболее существенное изменение касается герундия и причастия I, которые по традиции обычно рассматриваются как две различные формы, хотя многие грамматисты указывают, что они фактически не разграничимы. В предлагаемом учебнике они трактуются, вслед за некоторыми лингвистами, как единая форма the ing-form, способная выполнять в предложении, подобно инфинитиву, самые разнообразные функции. Для практического овладения материалом такая интерпретация, как показывает опыт, оказывается более эффективной. Авторы рекомендуют изучать употребление инфинитива и инговой формы параллельно по функциям. Например, изучая инфинитив в функции подлежащего, целесообразно одновременно читать материал об инговой форме в той же функции, а также параграфы, в которых эти две функции сравниваются (181, 209 и 235). Затем следует переходить к другой функции. На этой сравнительной основе построены упражнения в «Сборнике упражнений по грамматике английского языка» И. П. Крыловой. Вопрос раз-
4 граничения герундия и причастия I представляет интерес скорее для изучающих курс теоретической грамматики английского языка. По-новому освещается в учебнике также употребление артиклей. Раздел «Краткие сведения о структуре предложения» не претендует на полное описание синтаксической структуры английского языка, а является скорее справочным материалом, которым следует пользоваться в том случае, если, работая над основными главами, студенты сталкиваются с трудностями в определении синтаксических функций тех или иных классов слов. Кроме того, в учебнике используются не совсем традиционные названия некоторых синтаксических функций, объяснение которым также можно найти в этом разделе. В учебнике имеется приложение, которое содержит список неправильных глаголов и предметный указатель. Автор PARTS OF SPEECH IN ENGLISH The words of every language fall into classes which are called parts of speech. Each part of speech has characteristics of its own. Parts of speech differ from each other in meaning, form and function. Different parts of speech have different lexical meanings. For example, verbs are words denoting processes (to work, to live); nouns are names of objects (table, boy); adjectives are words expressing characteristics (good, bad), etc. Some parts of speech have different grammatical categories, e.g. verbs have the categories of mood, tense, aspect, phase, voice, person and number; nouns have the categories of number and case; adjectives have degrees of comparison, etc. Other parts of speech are invariable, they have only one form. Here belong such parts of speech as prepositions and conjunctions. Parts of speech also differ from each other in their syntactic functions. For example, verbs have the function of the predicate in the sentence, nouns are often used as the subject or the object of the sentence, adjectives serve as attributes or predicatives; adverbs are generally adverbial modifiers, etc. These characteristic features will be described in detail when each part of speech is considered individually. In addition, all words may be divided into two main groups: notional and structural. Notional words have distinct lexical meanings and perform independent syntactic functions in the sentence: they serve either as primary or secondary parts of the sentence. To this group belong the following parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns and adverbs. Structural words differ from notional words semantically: their lexical meaning is of a more general character than that of notional words (e.g. in, and, even). Moreover, they are sometimes altogether devoid of it (e.g. the articles the and a, the conjunction that, the preposition of, etc.). Structural words do not perform
5 any independent syntactic function in the sentence but serve either to express various relations between words in a sentence (e.g. the trees in the garden, Tom and Joe, etc.) or to specify the meaning of a word (e.g. the book, a book, etc.). The following parts of speech are to be treated as structural words: articles, prepositions and conjunctions. The division of words into notional and structural is connected with certain difficulties. For example, verbs, which, on the whole, are to be treated as notional words, include certain words which serve as structural elements (e.g. modal verbs), some other verbs may function either as notional words or as structural words (e.g. to look is a notional verb in He looked at me and a structural word a link-verb in He looked tired; the verb to have is a notional verb in I have a car and a structural word a modal verb in I had to do it). Pronouns may be quoted as another example since, on the one hand, they have, like all notional words, independent syntactic functions in the sentence but, on the other hand, they are devoid of distinct lexical meaning. VERBS 1. According to content, verbs can be described as words denoting actions, the term "actions" embracing the meaning of activity (e.g. to walk, to speak, to play, to study), process (e.g. to sleep, to wait, to live), state (e.g. to be, to like, to know), relation (e.g. to consist, to resemble, to lack) and the like. According to form, verbs can be described as words that have certain grammatical features that are not shared by other parts of speech, e.g. they have the categories of tense, aspect, voice, etc. According to function, verbs can be defined as words making up the predicate of the sentence. 2. Verbs can be classified under different heads. 1) According to their meaning verbs can be divided into two groups terminative and durative verbs. Terminative verbs imply a limit beyond which the action cannot continue. To put it differently, they have a final aim in view, e.g. to open, to close, to bring, to recognize, to refuse, to break. With the verb to open, for example, that means that after opening the door it is impossible to go on with the action as the door is already open. Durative verbs do not imply any such limit, and the action can go on indefinitely, e.g. to carry, to live, to speak, to know, to sit, to play. But as most verbs in English are polysemantic they may be terminative in one meaning and durative in another. For example, to see may have the terminative meaning "увидеть" and the durative meaning "видеть"; to know may denote "знать" and "узнать- The meaning of the verb becomes clear from the context. Compare: I saw him at once and I saw his face quite clearly. As will be seen, the distinction between terminative and durative verbs is of great importance as it affects the use of certain tense-aspect-phase forms.
6 2) According to their relation to the continuous form, English verbs fall into two groups: dynamic verbs, i.e. verbs which admit of the continuous form (a) and stative verbs, i.e. verbs which do not admit of the continuous form (b). e.g. a) We were eating dinner when he called. You"ll find Mother in the kitchen. She is making a cake, b) I understand what you mean. I don"t see him in the crowd. The distinction between dynamic, and stative verbs is fundamental in English grammar, and it is also reflected in a number of other ways than in the continuous form. It is normal for verbs to be dynamic, and even the minority that are almost always stative can be given a dynamic use on occasion. The following is the list of most commonly used stative verbs: a) verbs denoting physical perceptions: to hear, to notice, to see; b) verbs denoting emotions: to adore, to care for, to detest, to dislike, to hate, to like, to love, to respect; c) verbs denoting wish: to desire, to want, to wish; d) verbs denoting mental processes: to admire (= to be of high opinion), to appreciate, to assume, to believe (= to consider), to con sider (= to regard), to doubt, to expect (= to suppose), to feel (= to consider), to imagine, to know, to mind (= to object), to perceive, to presume, to recall, to recognize, to recollect, to regard, to remember, to suppose, to think (= to consider), to trust, to understand; e) relational verbs: to apply, to be, to belong, to concern, to consist, to contain, to depend, to deserve, to differ, to equal, to fit, to have, to hold (= to contain), to include, to involve, to lack, to matter, to need, to owe, to own, to possess, to remain, to require, to resemble, to result, to signify, to suffice; f) some other verbs: to agree, to allow, to appear (= to seem), to astonish, to claim, to consent, to displease, to envy, to fail to do, to feel (intr) l, to find, to forbid, to forgive, to intend, to interest, to keep doing, to manage to do, to mean, to object, to please, to prefer, to prevent, to puzzle, to realize, to refuse, to remind, to satisfy, to seem, to smell (intr), 1 to sound (intr), 1 to succeed, to suit, to surprise, to taste (intr), 1 to tend, to value. 1 As in: The surface feels rough. The song sounds nice. The soup tastes (smells) nice. 3) English verbs are also classified according to the type of object they take. Verbs that do not require any object are called intransitive. e.g. We walked across the fields. Nobody knew where the old man lived. Verbs that require some kind of object to complete their meaning are called transitive. The objects transitive verbs take may be direct (a), indirect (b) or prepositional (c). e.g. a) I swear I"m telling the truth. b) His mother never gave him advice. c) Now let"s talk of something sensible. Polysemantic verbs may be transitive in one meaning and intransitive in another. e.g. I didn"t know where to find him as he had changed his address. I was glad to see that he had not changed at all. He ran uphill past a block of houses. She ran the shop quite competently. 3. According to their meaning and function in the sentence English verbs are classified into notional and structural ones. Notional verbs always have a lexical meaning of their own and can have an independent syntactic function in the sentence. e.g. During the war he lived in London. When a verb is used as a structural word, it may either preserve or lose its lexical meaning. But even if it has a lexical meaning of its own, the latter is of a specific character and the verb cannot have an independent syntactic function in the sentence it is always closely connected with some other word. Here belong modal verbs and link-verbs. A modal verb is always accompanied by an infinitive together they form a modal predicate. e.g. The party is at eight. You must dress suitably for it. I couldn"t do anything under the circumstances. A link-verb is followed by a predicative; together they form a nominal predicate.
7 e.g. He was a middle-aged man. It became very hot by noon. The hotel remained empty all through the winter. The cottage seemed deserted. Sometimes a verb is entirely devoid of lexical meaning and is then called an auxiliary verb. Combined with a notional verb it serves to build up analytical forms. e.g. We had arranged to meet in the usual place. Do you know why he said that? The young man was sitting at the table alone. Polysemantic verbs may be notional as well as structural words. e.g. He is married and has three children (a notional verb used in the meaning "to possess"). I had to reconsider my position (a structural word: a modal verb denoting obligation, part of a modal predicate). "It has happened now," he said, "so there"s nothing to do" (a structural word: an auxiliary verb which serves to build up an analytical form). He looked at me, waiting for the next words (notional verb meaning "glanced"). He looked quite happy (a structural word: a link-verb meaning "seemed"). 4. English verbs are characterized by a great variety of forms which can be divided into two main groups according to the function they perform in the sentence: the finite forms and the non-finite forms. The finite forms have the function of the predicate in the sentence and may also be called the predicative forms. The non-finite or non-predicative forms can have various other functions; they are used as the predicate of the sentence only by way of exception. These forms are often called the verbals (see "Verbs",). The finite forms of the verb have the following grammatical categories: 1) Person and Number. These categories of the verb serve to show the connection between the subject and the predicate of the sentence the subject agrees with the predicate in person and number. We find three persons (the first, the second, and the third) and two numbers (the singular and the plural) in finite verbs (see the formation of finite forms, "Verbs", 9, 11, 15, 17, 22, 25, 29, 33, 38, 40, 43, 45). 2) Tense, Aspect and Phase (see "Verbs", 7). 3) Voice (see "Verbs", 61-63). 4) Mood (see "Verbs",). 5. The forms that serve to express the above mentioned grammatical categories may be built up in different ways. We find three basic forms that serve as a foundation for building up all the other forms of the English verb. These forms are: 1) the plain verb stem which is also often referred to as the infinitive without the particle to, 2) the Past Indefinite, and 3) the participle. According to the way of forming the Past Indefinite and the participle, all verbs can be divided into two classes: regular and irregular verbs. With regular verbs, the Past Indefinite and the participle are formed by adding the suffix -ed. It is pronounced [d] after vowels and voiced consonants (e.g. played, answered, opened, closed), [t] after voiceless consonants (e.g. looked, passed), and after verbs ending in [t] or [d] (e.g. wanted, wasted, ended, landed). In writing the following spelling rules should be observed: 1) Verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant change the -y into -led (e.g. study studied, envy envied). But if the -y is preceded by a vowel, it remains unchanged (e.g. play played, stay stayed). 2) A final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short stressed vowel or if a verb ends in a stressed -er (-ur) (e.g. stop stopped, admit admitted, occur occurred, prefer preferred). But if the preceding vowel is long or unstressed, the final consonant remains single (e.g. limit limited, perform performed, conquer conquered, appear appeared). 3) A final -l is always doubled in British English (e.g. travel travelled, quarrel quarrelled). All other verbs should be regarded as irregular in modern English. They are a miscellaneous group comprising various patterns
8 (e.g. sing sang sung, write wrote written, send sent sent, teach taught taught, etc.)- Some verbs have a regular form by the side of an irregular one (e.g. learn learnt learnt and also learn learned learned). A number of verbs remain unchanged (e.g. cut cut cut, hit hit hit). Two verbs take their forms from different roots and are called suppletive systems. They are the verbs to be and to go. (For a complete list of irregular verbs see Appendix.) 6. The forms of the verb which are built up with the help of the above described basic forms may be of two different kinds synthetic or analytical. Synthetic forms are built up by a change in the word itself: by means of suffixes (e.g. I work, he works, we worked), by means of vowel change (e.g. I find, I found), and sometimes by combining both means (e.g. I think, I thought). Analytical forms consist of two components, e.g. He has worked hard. The first component is an auxiliary verb which has no lexical meaning it expresses only grammatical meaning. The second component is a notional verb which is the bearer of lexical meaning ("носитель лексического значения"). The auxiliary verb shows that has worked is the third person singular, the Indicative Mood, the Active Voice. But the specific meaning of this particular form, that of the Present Perfect, results only from the combination of both components. In the analytical form was written (as in: The letter was written yesterday), written is the bearer of lexical meaning; was shows that we are dealing with the third person singular, the Indicative Mood, the Past Indefinite, But again the specific grammatical meaning of this particular form, that of the Passive Voice, is expressed by the whole combination of the auxiliary and the notional verb. Thus an analytical form consists of two words a structural word and a notional word which form a very close, inseparable unit. It functions in English as the form of a single word by the side of synthetic forms (e.g. he works, he has worked, he worked, he was working, he had worked, etc.). The auxiliary verb itself may be an analytical form (e.g. He has been working. He will be working. The letter has been written, etc.). Such forms may be called complex analytical forms. FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB Tense, Aspect and Phase 7. Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. The category of tense in English is made up by a set of forms opposed to each other in referring the event or state described to the present, past or future. Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is regarded. There are two opposing sets of aspect forms in English the Continuous forms and the Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms. The Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms have a very broad meaning, they have no specialized aspect characteristics of their own and merely represent an action as occurring. Conversely, the Continuous forms have a clear-cut aspect characteristic, which is to represent an action in its temporary development. The Continuous forms have a number of other concomitant meanings or overtones that go with the basic meaning of process and duration. They are incompletion, simultaneity, vividness of description, emotional colouring and emphasis. Besides, there are the Perfect forms which are opposed to the Non-Perfect forms. The latter have no definite grammatical characteristics. The grammatical meaning of the Perfect forms is to express retrospectiveness, which consists of two elements priority and relevance. In some grammars this category has been given the name phase. The three grammatical categories of the English verb are so closely merged together that it is impossible to treat them separately. We find the following finite forms in English: the Present Indefinite, the Present Continuous, the Present Perfect, the Present Perfect Continuous, the Past Indefinite, the Past Continuous, the Past Perfect, the Past Perfect Continuous, the Future Indefinite, the Future Continuous, the Future Perfect, the Future Indefinitein-the-Past, the Future Continuous-in-the-Past, and the Future Perfect-in-the-Past. 8. 1) In discussing the use of English finite forms it is necessary to understand that in most cases the choice is free: the form is chosen in accordance with the meaning the speaker wishes to
9 convey and does not depend on the structure of the sentence, e.g. He knows English. He knew English. He will know English. In certain cases, however, the choice of the form is determined by the structure of the sentence, usually the kind of clause in which it is used. For example, the use of the Present Indefinite with reference to the future in a clause of time or condition (a), or the use of a finite form under the rules of the sequence of tenses (b). e.g. a) When you feel hungry, I"ll bring you some sandwiches. If I want anything I"ll call you up. b) She knew that Henry would be waiting for her. I wondered if he had kept his promise. In such cases we have the structurally dependent use of finite forms. In still other cases the choice of the finite form in a subordinate clause is determined not so much by the kind of clause as by the lexical character of the head-word, i.e. the word in the principal clause which the subordinate clause modifies or refers to. For example, in object clauses subordinated to the verbs to see to, to take care or to make sure the future forms are not used. e.g. He"ll take care that she comes in time. She saw to it that they had plenty of food in the house. In such cases we have the lexically-dependent use of finite forms. 2) Closely connected with the above notion is the absolute and relative use of finite forms. The forms may refer an action directly to the present, past or future time. We are dealing in this case with the absolute use of finite forms, which, as a rule, is structurally independent. But in certain types of clauses the verb form of the subordinate clause only shows whether the action of the clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause, precedes it or follows it. (These relations may be termed as simultaneity, priority and posteriority respectively.) In this case we are dealing with the relative use of finite forms. It is usually structurally dependent (see, for example, the rules of the sequence of tenses). e.g. He discovered that his wife knew London far better than he did. He knew that she had read his thoughts. He thought that he would hate the place. 3) Last but not least, students of English should differentiate between present-time contexts and past-time contexts. In present-time contexts, i.e. in conversations, letters, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and scientific prose, the situation is viewed from the moment of speaking. (The moment of speaking is to be understood as present from the speaker"s point of view but not as the present moment.) Any finite form that is required by the sense can be used in present-time contexts. The only reservation should be made for the Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous and all the Future-in-the-Past forms which are, in presenttime contexts, mainly found in reported speech or thought. In past-time contexts, i.e. in narration, the situation is viewed from a past moment. Hence, the use of finite forms is restricted only to past forms including the Future-in-the-Past. The Present Indefinite 9. The Present Indefinite is formed from the plain stem of the verb. In the third person singular it has the suffix -s/-es which is pronounced after voiceless consonants (e.g. looks, puts), and after sibilants (e.g. closes, places, teaches, wishes, judges). In writing the following spelling rules should be observed: a) Verbs ending in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -tch, x and -z take the suffix -es (e.g. passes, pushes, watches). The suffix -es is also added to verbs ending in о preceded by a consonant (e.g. goes). b) Verbs ending in -y with a preceding consonant change the -y into -ies (e.g. study studies, try tries, fly flies). But if the У is preceded by a vowel, the suffix -s is added (e.g. play plays, stay stays). The affirmative form of the Present Indefinite is a synthetic form (e.g. I work, he works, etc.). But the interrogative and negative forms are built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb do in the Present Indefinite and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to (e.g. Do you work? Does he work? I do not
11 с) In demonstrations: Now I peel the apples, slice them and put into the dish. Then I whip the cream until thick and pour it over the apples. 3) The Present Indefinite is sometimes used to express a single action going on at the moment of speaking where normally the Present Continuous is used. This occurs in two different cases: a) The use of the Present Indefinite becomes obligatory with stative verbs. (For the list see "Verbs", 2.) e.g. I quite understand what you mean. She sipped her coffee and pulled a face. "It tastes horrible tonight." He wants to see you for a minute. "Do you object, Dad?" said the girl. b) The Present Indefinite is also used for an instantaneous action which takes place at the moment of speaking but it is not viewed in its progress. The speaker just names the occurrence itself, the action as such. e.g. "I repeat, the girl has been extremely impertinent," he said. You leave me no choice. I swear it to you! I refuse to listen to you. You talk such nonsense. "Where shall we have our meal?" "Anywhere you like." "I choose the kitchen then." "You"ve always treated me badly and now you insult me," Maurice shouted in his turn. This use of the Present Indefinite is also often found in exclamatory and interrogative sentences. e.g. My dear, how you throw about your money! She said: "How swiftly the years fly!" "May I help you to wash the baby?" "It is very kind of you. Ah, how he kicks! Has he splashed you?" Why do you talk like that to me? 4) The Present Indefinite may be used to express future actions. This occurs in four different cases: a) Its use is structurally dependent (see "Verbs", 8), i.e. compulsory, in subordinate clauses of time, condition and concession when the action refers to the future (in such cases we usually find the Future Indefinite, or modal verbs, or the Imperative Mood in the principal clause). Clauses of time referring to the future may be introduced by the conjunctions when, while, till, until, before, after, as soon as and once. e.g. Will you wait while I look through the manuscript? She won"t go to bed till you come. I shall have a look at his paper when I get it. Clauses of condition are introduced by the conjunctions if, unless, on condition {that), provided {providing) and in case. e.g. If you send me a line to my club, it"ll be forwarded at once. But I must have the doctor handy, in case she feels worse. Note. In clauses other than those of time and condition, the Future Indefinite is used even if these clauses are introduced by the conjunctions if and when. e.g. I wonder if the tape recorder will eventually replace the record player. The important thing to know is when the book will come out. Clauses of concession are introduced by the conjunctions even if, even though, no matter how, whenever, whatever, however, etc. e.g. Even if he hates me I shall never do him any harm. I"ll have dinner whenever it"s ready. b) Its use is lexically dependent in object clauses after to see (to), to take care and to make (be) sure. e.g. I"ll see that the lady is properly looked after. Her husband will look after her, and make sure no harm comes to her. He will take care that no one interferes with them. c) The use of the Present Indefinite with reference to the immediate future is structurally dependent in some special questions. e.g. What do we do next? ("Что будем сейчас делать?") Where do we go now? ("Куда сейчас пойдем?") What happens next? ("Что сейчас будет?")
12 You look ill. Why don"t you go home? ("Ты плохо выглядишь. Почему бы тебе не пойти домой?") d) The Present Indefinite may be used to indicate a future action which is certain to take place according to a timetable, programme, schedule, command or arrangement worked out for a person or persons officially. In this case the sentence usually contains an indication of time. e.g. "Is Mr Desert in?" "No, Sir. Mr Desert has just started for the East. His ship sails tomorrow." (according to the timetable) Our tourist group sleep at the Globo hotel this night and start for Berlin tomorrow morning, (according to the itinerary) "Can you tell me what time the game starts today, please?" (according to the schedule) When does Ted return from his honeymoon? {according to his official leave of absence) You see, in six weeks his regiment goes back to the front, (according to the command) Note. It should be noted that this use of the Present Indefinite is not interchangeable with the Present Continuous. (See "Verbs", 11.) 5) The Present Indefinite is used in literary style to describe a succession of actions in the past, usually to make a vivid narrative of past events. This application of the Present Indefinite is often called in grammars the historic or dramatic present. e.g. She arrives full of life and spirit. And about a quarter of an hour later she sits down in a chair, says she doesn"t feel well, gasps a bit and dies. The Present Continuous 11. The Present Continuous is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Present Indefinite and the ing-form of the notional verb (e.g. I am working. He is working, etc.). The same auxiliary is used in the interrogative and the negative form (e.g. Are you working? Is he working? We are not working. He is not working, etc.). In spoken English the contracted forms I"т, he"s and we"re should be used in affirma tive sentences and isn"t and aren"t in negative sentences. The ing-form, is built up by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb (e.g. speak speaking). In writing the following spelling rules should be observed: a) A mute -e at the end of the verb is dropped before the suffix -ing (e.g. close closing, make making). b) A final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short stressed vowel or if a verb ends in a stressed -er (-ur) (e.g. cut cutting, begin beginning, prefer preferring, occur occurring), c) A final -I is always doubled in British English (e.g. travel travelling, quarrel quarrelling). d) A final -y is preserved no matter what sound it is preceded by (e.g. study studying, stay staying). e) A final ie changes into -y (e.g. tie tying, lie lying). 12. The Present Continuous is used with dynamic verbs in the following cases: 1) To express an action going on at the present moment, i.e. the moment of speaking. The precise time limits of the action are not known, its beginning and its end are not specified. The indication of time is not necessary in this case though occasionally such adverbial modifiers as now and at present are found. e.g. "Do you know where Philip is?" "I expect he is talking to Mother." I asked: "Is anything new happening?" "Oh, hullo," he said. "Do you want to see me?" "No, thanks. I"m looking for my father." Tears flowed slowly down her cheeks. "What are you crying for?" "Oh, mummy! The eggs are burning! The coffee is boiling over! Where is the large tray? Where do you keep things?" cried Adeline. 2) To express an action going on at the present period. In this case the precise time limits of the action are not known either. Besides, the action may or may not be going on at the actual moment of speaking. As in the previous case, indications of time are not necessary here either.
13 e.g. But you"ve not been in England much lately. Public opinion is changing. I must tell you about it. "And what are you doing in Geneva?" "I"m writing a play," said Ashenden. The great detective has retired from business. He is growing roses in a little cottage in Dorking. I stay indoors most of the time. I " m catching up with my studies. They"re getting ready to move to their new house. Sometimes this Present Continuous shows that for the time being a certain action happens to be the most important and characteristic occupation for its doer (for this see the last four examples above). Note. Notice the phrase to be busy doing something. It is synonymous in meaning with the Present Continuous in the first and second cases of its use. The phrase is very common in English. e.g. Father is busy cutting the grass in the garden. Nigel is busy getting himself into Parliament. 3) To express actions generally characterizing the person denoted by the subject, bringing out the person"s typical traits. Often the adverbial modifiers always and constantly are found in these sentences, e.g. People are always blaming their circumstances for what they are. "You"re always showing off," she said to her brother in a loud whisper. Her husband retorted: "You"re constantly complaining that you have too much to do." The Present Continuous in this case imparts a subjective, emotionally coloured tone. When no emotional colouring is implied, the Present Indefinite is used to give an objective characteristic (see "Verbs", 10, b). Cf.: Old uncle Harry is always thinking he"s going to be ruined. You people always think I"ve a bag of money. Note. Note the following sentence patterns, in which recurrent actions are made emotionally coloured by the use of the Present Continuous. e.g- I wonder if all grown-up people play in that childish way when nobody is looking? When Adeline is grinning we know she is happy. When I see him he is always eating something. 4) To express actions which will take place in the near future due to one"s previous decision. For that reason the action is regarded as something definitely settled. We usually find an indication of future time in this case (see also "Verbs", 47). e.g. "I am sailing early next month," he said. Are you dining out tonight? He is having a meeting with the men this afternoon. "I"m staying the night at Green Street," said Val. 13. As has been said above, the Present Continuous is used with dynamic verbs. However, some stative verbs (see "Verbs", 2, 2) when they change their meaning can be used in the Continuous form. e.g. "Are you seeing Clare tonight?" she asked. He said, "I"m seeing you home." "Are you going in the water?" Sybil said. "I"m seriously considering it." Jane turned away. "The thing to do," she said, "is to pay no attention to him. He is just being silly." Note. Notice that in cases like those above the verb to be is close to to behave in meaning. Special attention should be paid to the verb to have which in its original meaning "to possess" does not admit of the continuous form. e.g. Suddenly he came in and said: "Have you a letter for me, postman?" But with a change of its meaning, the use of the continuous form becomes the rule if it is required by the sense. Namely, it occurs when to have is part of set phrases, as in: to have a bath, to have a good holiday, to have a party, to have a smoke, to have a walk, to have coffee, to have dinner, to have something done, to have to do something, to have trouble and the like. e.g. "Where is Mr Franklin?" he asked. "He"s having a bath. He"ll be right out."
14 I know you are having your difficulties. My village will be as pretty as a picture. Trees along the street. You see, I"m having them planted already. Some of the other verbs included in the list of stative verbs may also be occasionally used in the continuous form. Then the actions indicated by these verbs express great intensity of feeling. e.g. "You"ll find it a great change to live in New York." "At the present time I"m hating it," she said in an expressionless tone. "Strange," he said, "how, when people are either very young or very old, they are always wanting to do something they should not do." Dear Amy, I"ve settled in now and I am liking my new life very much. 14. Some durative verbs, for example, verbs of bodily sensation (to ache, to feel, to hurt, to itch, etc.) and such verbs as to wear, to look (= to seem), to shine and some other can be used either in the Present Indefinite or in the Present Continuous with little difference in meaning. Cf. You"re looking well, cousin Joan. You look quite happy today. "I know what you are feeling, Roy," she said. "We all feel exactly the same." The Present Perfect 15. The Present Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Present Indefinite and the participle of the notional verb (e.g. I have worked. He has worked, etc.)- (On the formation of the participle see "Verbs", 5 and Appendix.) The same auxiliary is used to form the interrogative and negative forms (e.g. Have you worked? Has he worked? It has not worked. They have not worked). In spoken English the contracted forms I"ve, he"s, she"s, it"s, we"ve, you"ve and they"ve are used in affirmative sentences and haven"t and hasn"t in negative sentences. 16. The Present Perfect falls within the time sphere of the, present and is not used in narration where reference is made to past events. It follows from that that the Present Perfect is used in present-time contexts, i.e. conversations, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and letters. The Present Perfect has three distinct uses. They will be further referred to as Present Perfect I, Present Perfect II and Present Perfect III. 1) Present Perfect I is the Present Perfect proper. It is used to express an accomplished action which is viewed from the moment of speaking as part of the present situation. Attention in this case is centred on the action itself. The circumstances under which the action occurred appear unimportant and immaterial at the moment and need not be mentioned. e.g. He is very sensitive, I have discovered that. I"ve had a talk with him. He says he has all the proof he wants. Such news! We"ve bought a racehorse. "I"ve spoiled everything," she said. His secretary said tactfully: "I"ve put off your other appointments for a while." It should be especially noted that though the action expressed in the Present Perfect is regarded as already accomplished, it belongs to the present-time sphere and is treated as a present action. It becomes obvious from the periphrasis: I"ve heard the doctor"s opinion > I know the doctor"s opinion. She"s gone off to the woods > She is in the woods. A similar idea of an accomplished action is also traced in such expressions referring to the present as He is awake. I"m late. The work is done. The door is locked, etc. Since it is the action itself that the Present Perfect makes important, it is frequently used to open up conversations (newspaper and radio reports, or letters) or to introduce a new topic in them. However, if the conversation (report or letter) continues on the same subject, going into detail, the Present Perfect usually changes to the Past Indefinite, as the latter is used to refer to actions or situations which are definite in the mind of the speaker. Usually (but not necessarily) some concrete circumstances of the action (time, place, cause, purpose, manner, etc.) are mentioned in this case.
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e.g. "You are all right. You are coming round. Are you feeling better?" "I"m quite all right. But what has happened? Where am I?" "You"re in a dug-out, You were buried by a bomb from a trench-mortar." "Oh, was I? But how did I get here?" "Someone dragged you. I am afraid some of your men were killed, and several others were wounded." "Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat, Where have you been?" "I"ve been to London To look at the Queen." "Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat, What did you see there?" "I saw a little mouse Under her chair." As is seen from the above examples, the Present Perfect is used to name a new action, whereas the Past Indefinite is used to refer back to a definite action and the attention in this case is often drawn rather to the circumstances attending the action than to the action itself. Note. The functions of the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite may be in a way compared with those of the indefinite and the definite articles. The indefinite article is used when an object is just named (e.g. Glue me a book. She is a teacher. I have a brother). Likewise the Present Perfect serves to name an accomplished action (see the examples above). Both the definite article and the Past Indefinite are used when an object or an action, respectively, is definite in the mind of the speaker (e.g. The book is on the table. The teacher returned the compositions,) As has been said, Present Perfect I is mainly used to introduce a new topic. But it may also be used to sum up a situation. e.g. "I"ve done bad things," I said, "but I don"t think I could have done some of the things you"ve done." "You"ve so often been helpful in the past." "I"ve tried," said Joseph. We"ve all been young once, you know. We"ve all felt it, Roy. "I"m afraid I"ve been horribly boring and talked too much," she said as she pressed my hand. "Agatha has told me everything. How cleverly you have both kept your secret," "You and your wife have been very good to me. Thank you." In accordance with its main function just to name an accomplished action the Present Perfect is generally used when }
