History of Poland. A Brief History of Poland When the Polish state was formed

The history of each country is shrouded in secrets, beliefs and legends. The history of Poland is no exception. In its development, Poland has experienced many ups and downs. Several times it fell into the occupation of other countries, was barbarously divided, which led to devastation and chaos, but, despite this, Poland, like a phoenix, always rose from the ashes and became even stronger. Today Poland is one of the most developed European countries, with a rich culture, economy and history.

The history of Poland dates back to the 6th century. The legend says that there once lived three brothers, and their names were Lech, Czech and Russ. They wandered with their tribes through various territories and finally found a cozy place that stretches between the rivers called the Vistula and the Dnieper. Towering above all this beauty was a large and ancient oak, on which an eagle's nest was located. Here Lech decided to found the city of Gniezno. And the eagle, from which it all began, began to sit on the coat of arms of the founded state. The brothers went on to seek happiness further. And so two more states were founded - the Czech Republic in the south, and Russia in the east.

The first documented memories of Poland date back to 843. The author, who was called the Bavarian geographer, described the tribal settlement of the Lechites, who lived in the territory between the Vistula and the Odra. It had its own language and culture. And it did not obey any neighboring state. This territory was remote from the commercial and cultural centers of Europe, which for a long time kept it hidden from the bulk of nomads and conquerors. In the IX century, several large tribes emerged from the Lekhites:

1. glade - settled their settlement on the territory, which was later called Greater Poland. The main centers were Gniezno and Poznań;
2. Vistula - with the center in Krakow and Wislice. This settlement was called Lesser Poland;
3. mazovshan - center in Plock;
4. the Kuyavians, or, as the Goplians also called it, in Kruszwitz;
5. Ślązie - the center of Wrocław.

The tribes could boast of a clear hierarchical structure and a primitive state foundation. The territory where the tribes lived was called - "opolye". It was ruled by elders - people from the most ancient families. In the center of each "opolye" there was a "grad" - a fortification that protected people from bad weather and enemies. The elders sat hierarchically at the highest level of the population, they had their own retinue and guards. All issues were resolved at a meeting of men - "veche". Such a system shows that even in times of tribal relations, the history of Poland developed progressively and civilized.

The most developed and strongest of all the tribes was the Vislan tribe. Located in the basin of the Upper Vistula, they had large and fruitful lands. The center was Krakow, which was connected by trade routes with Russia and Prague. Such comfortable living conditions attracted more and more people and soon the Vistulas became the largest tribe, with developed external and political contacts. It is generally accepted that they already had their own "prince sitting on the Vistula."

Unfortunately, almost no information has been preserved about the ancient princes. We know only about one prince of Polyan, named Popel, who sat in the city of Gnezdo. The prince was not very good and fair, and for his deeds he got what he deserved, he was first overthrown, and then expelled into everything. The throne was occupied by a simple hard worker Semovit, the son of a plowman Piast and a woman Repka. He ruled with dignity. Together with him, two more princes sat in power - Lestko and Semomysl. They united various neighboring tribes under their rule. In the conquered cities, their governors ruled. They also built new castles and fortifications for defense. The prince had a developed squad and this kept the tribes in obedience. Such a good springboard was prepared by Prince Semovit, for his son - the great and just first ruler of Poland - Bag I.

Mieszko I sat on the throne from 960 to 992. During his reign, the history of Poland underwent a series of radical changes. He doubled his territory by conquering the Gdansk Pomerania, Western Pomerania, Silesia and the lands of the Vistula. Turned them into rich, both demographically and economically territories. The number of his squad was several thousand, which helped to restrain the tribes from uprisings. In his state, Mieszko I introduced a system of taxes for the villagers. Most often it was food and agriculture. Sometimes, taxes were paid in the form of services: construction, handicraft, etc. This helped to upset the state, and people not to give the last piece of bread. This method suited both the prince and the population. The ruler also had monopoly rights - "regalia" on increasingly important and profitable areas of the economy, for example, coinage, mining of precious metals, market fees, fees from beaver hunting. The prince was the sole ruler of the country, he was surrounded by a retinue and several military leaders who helped in state affairs. Power was transferred according to the principle of "primogeniture" and in the ranks of one dynasty. Mieszko I, with his reforms, won the title of the founder of the Polish state, at the same time with a developed economy and defense capability. His marriage to a princess from the Czech Republic, Dobrava, and holding this ceremony according to the Catholic rite, was the impetus for the adoption of Christianity, once a pagan state. This marked the beginning of the acceptance of Poland by Christian Europe.

After the death of Sack I, his son Boleslav (967-1025) ascended the throne. For his fighting power and courage in defending his country, he was nicknamed the Brave. He was one of the most intelligent and resourceful politicians. During his reign, the country expanded its possessions and significantly strengthened its position on the world map. At the beginning of his journey, he was actively involved in various missions to introduce Christianity and his power in the territories occupied by the Prussians. By their nature, they were peaceful and in 996 he sent Bishop Adalbert, in Poland he was called Wojciech Slavnikovets, in the territory under the control of the Prussians, to preach Christianity. In Poland he was called Wojciech Slavnikoviec. A year later, he was killed, cut into several pieces. In order to redeem his body, the prince paid as much gold as the bishop weighed. The Pope heard this news, canonized Bishop Adalbert, who over the years became the heavenly protector of Poland.

After the failed peace missions, Bolesław began to annex territories with the help of fire and weapons. He increased the size of his squad to 3,900 cavalry soldiers and 13,000 infantry, turning his army into one of the largest and most powerful. The desire to win led to ten years of problems for Poland with a state like Germany. In 1002 Bolesław seized the territories that were under the possession of Henry II. Also, 1003-1004 was marked by the seizure of territories that belonged to the Czech Republic, Moravia and not a large part of Slovakia. In 1018, the Kyiv throne was taken by his son-in-law Svyatopolk. True, he was soon overthrown by the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise. With him, Boleslav signed an agreement guaranteeing non-aggression, since he considered him a good and intelligent ruler. Another way to the diplomatic resolution of conflicts was the Gniezney Congress (1000). This was a meeting of Boleslav with the German ruler Otto III, during a pilgrimage to the tomb of the holy bishop Wojciech. At this congress, Otto III called Bolesław the Brave his Brother and Partner of the Empire. He also put a diadem on his head. In turn, Boleslav presented the German ruler with the brush of the holy bishop. This union led to the creation of an archbishopric in the city of Gniezno and a bishopric in several cities, namely: Krakow, Wroclaw, Kolobrzeg. Bolesław the Brave, through his efforts, developed the policy that his father had begun to promote Christianity in Poland. Such recognition from Otto III and later, the Pope, led to the fact that on April 18, 1025 Bolesław the Brave was crowned and became the first King of Poland. Boleslav did not enjoy the title for a long time and died a year later. But the memory of him, as a good ruler, lives on today.

Despite the fact that power in Poland was transferred from father to eldest son, Bolesław the Brave bequeathed the throne to his favorite, Mieszko II (1025-1034), and not Besprima. Mieszko II did not distinguish himself as a good ruler even after several high-profile defeats. They led to the fact that Mieszko II renounced his royal title and divided specific lands between his younger brother Otto and close relative Dietrich. Although until the end of his life he was still able to reunite all the lands, he failed to achieve his former power for the country.

The ruined lands of Poland and feudal fragmentation, that's what was inherited from his father, the eldest son of Mieszko II - Casimir, who later received the nickname - Restorer (1038-1050). He established his residence in Kruszwitz and this became the center of defensive missions against the Czech king, who wanted to steal the relics of Bishop Adalbert. Casimir started the war of liberation. The first to become his enemy was Metslav, who occupied large areas of Poland. To attack such a powerful opponent alone was a huge stupidity, and Casimir asked for the support of the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise. Yaroslav the Wise not only helped Casimir in military affairs, but also became related to him by marrying him to his sister Maria Dobronega. The Polish-Russian army actively fought against the army of Metzlav, and Emperor Henry III attacked the Czech Republic, which removed the Czech troops from the territory of Poland. Casimir the Restorer gets the opportunity to freely restore his state, his economic and military policies have brought many positive changes to the life of the country. In 1044, he actively expanded the borders of the Commonwealth and transferred his court to Krakow, making it the central city of the country. Despite Meclav's attempts to attack Krakow and overthrow the Piast heir from the throne, Casimir mobilizes all his forces in time and cracks down on the enemy. At the same time, in 1055, they annexed Slensk, Mazowska and Silesia, once controlled by the Czechs, to their possessions. Casimir the Restorer became a ruler who succeeded, bit by bit, in uniting and turning Poland into a strong and developed state.

After the death of Casimir the Restorer, an internecine struggle for the throne broke out between Boleslav II the Generous (1058-1079) and Vladislav Herman (1079-1102). Boleslav II continued the policy of conquest. He repeatedly attacked Kyiv and the Czech Republic, fought against the policies of Henry IV, which led to the fact that in 1074 Poland declared its independence from imperial power and became a state that was under the protection of the Pope. And already in 1076 Boleslav was crowned and recognized as the King of Poland. But the strengthening of the power of the magnates, and the constant battles that tired the people, led to an uprising. It was headed by the younger brother Vladislav. The king was overthrown and expelled from the country.

Vladislav German took power. He was a passive politician. Relinquished the title of king and returned the title of prince. All his deeds were aimed at reconciliation with neighbors: peace treaties were signed with the Czech Republic and the Roman Empire, taming local magnates and fighting the aristocracy. This led to the loss of some territories and the displeasure of the people. Uprisings began against Vladislav, led by his sons (Zbigniew and Boleslav). Zbigniew became the lord of Greater Poland, Boleslaw - Lesser. But this alignment did not suit the younger brother, and on his orders, the older brother was blinded and expelled because of his alliance with the Roman Empire and bulks in Poland. After this event, the throne completely passed to Boleslav Wrymouth (1202-1138). He defeated German and Czech troops several times, which led to further reconciliation of the heads of these states. Having dealt with external problems, Boleslav set his sights on Pomorie. In 1113, he captured the area near the river Notes, also the fortress of Naklo. And already 1116-1119. subjugated Gdansk and Pomerania in the east. Unprecedented battles were fought to capture Western Primorye. rich and developed region. A number of successful operations carried out in 1121 led to the fact that Szczecin, Rügen, Wolin recognized the suzerainty of Poland. The policy of promoting Christianity in these territories began, which further strengthened the significance of the power of the prince. In Wolin, in 1128, the Pomeranian bishopric was opened. More than once, uprisings broke out in these territories, and Boleslav became engaged to the support of Denmark to pay them off. For this, he gave the territory of Rügen to Danish rule, but the rest of the territories remained under the suzerain of Poland, although not without omnage to the emperor. Bolesław Krivousty before his death in 1138 created a will - a statute according to which he divided the territories between his sons: the elder Vladislav sat in Silesia, the second, named Boleslav, in Mazovia and Kuyavia, the third Mieszko - in part of Greater Poland with a center in Poznan, the fourth son Heinrich, received Lublin and Sandomierz, and the youngest, named Casimir, remained in the care of brothers without lands and power. The rest of the lands passed into the power of the eldest of the Piast family and formed an autonomous lot. He created a system called seigniorate - the center of which was in Krakow with the power of the great Krakow prince-princeps. He had sole power over all territories, Pomorye and dealt with foreign policy, military and church issues. This led to feudal civil strife for a period of 200 years.

True, there was one positive moment in the history of Poland, which is associated with the reign of Boleslav Krivoust. After the Second World War, it was its territorial boundaries that were taken as the basis for the restoration of modern Poland.

The second half of the 12th century for Poland, as well as for Kievan Rus and Germany, became a turning point. These states collapsed, and their territories fell under the rule of vassals, who, together with the church, minimized his power, and then did not recognize it at all. This led to greater independence, once controlled areas. Poland began to look more and more like a feudal country. Power was concentrated in the hands not of the prince, but of the big landowner. Settlements were populated and new systems of cultivating the land and harvesting were actively introduced. A three-field system was introduced, they began to use a plow, a water mill. The reduction of princely taxes and the development of market relations led to the fact that the villagers and artisans received the right to dispose of their goods and money. This significantly increased the standard of living of the peasant, and the landowner received a better performance of the work. Everyone benefited from this. The decentralization of power made it possible for large landowners to establish a lively work, and then trade in goods and services. The constant internecine wars between the princes, who forgot to deal with state affairs, only contributed to this. And soon Poland began to actively develop as a feudal-industrial state.

The 13th century in the history of Poland was vague and bleak. Mongol-Tatars attacked Poland from the east, as well as Lithuanians and Prussians advanced from the north. The princes made attempts to protect themselves from the Prussians and convert the pagans to Christianity, but they were unsuccessful. Desperate, Prince Konrad of Mazovia in 1226. called on the help of the Teutonic Order. He gave them the Helminsky land, although the order did not stop there. The crusaders had at their disposal material and military means, and also knew how to build fortification defenses. This made it possible to conquer part of the Baltic lands and establish there a small state - East Prussia. It was settled by immigrants from Germany. This new country limited Poland's access to the Baltic Sea and actively threatened the integrity of Polish territory. So the saving Teutonic Order soon became the unspoken enemy of Poland.

In addition to the Prussians, Lithuanians and crusaders in Poland in the 40s, an even bigger problem arose - the Mongolian bulk. Which has already managed to conquer Russia. They broke into the territory of Lesser Poland and, like a tsunami, swept away everything in their path. In 1241 in the month of April, a battle took place on the territory of Silesia, near Legnica, between the knights under the leadership of Henry the Pious and the Mongols. Prince Mieszko, knights from Greater Poland, from the orders of the Teutonic Order, St. John's Order, the Knights Templar, came to support him. 7-8 thousand soldiers gathered in the sum. But the Mongols had more coordinated tactics, more weapons and used gas, which was intoxicating. This led to the defeat of the Polish army. No one knows whether it's the resistance or the strength of the Poles' spirit, but the Mongols left the country and didn't attack like that again. Only in 1259. and in 1287. repeated their attempt, which was more like an attack for the purpose of robbery than conquest.

After the victory over the conquerors, the history of Poland flowed in its natural course. Poland recognized that the supreme power was concentrated in the hands of the Pope and paid tribute to him every year. The Pope had great power in resolving all internal and external issues in Poland, which preserved its integrity and unity, and also developed the culture of the country. The foreign policy of all the princes, although ambitiously aimed at expanding their territories, was not revealed in practice. Internal expansion reached a high level, when each prince wanted to colonize as many territories as possible within the country itself. The feudal division of society was reinforced by status inequality. The number of serfs increased. The number of emigrants from other countries also increased, for example, Germans, Flemings, who brought their innovations to legal and other systems of government. Such colonists, in turn, received land, money and incredible freedom of action to develop the economy. This attracted more and more new settlers to the territory of Poland, the population density increased, the quality of labor increased. Which led to the emergence of German cities in Silesia, which were ruled by Magdeburg, or as it was also called Helminsky right. The first such city was Środa-Śląska. Rather, such legal administration spread to the entire territory of Poland and to almost all spheres of the life of the population.

A new stage in the history of Poland began in 1296, when Władysław Loketok (1306-1333) from Kujawia began the path to the reunification of all the lands together with the Polish knights and some burghers. He was successful and in a short time united Lesser and Greater Poland and the Seaside. But in 1300, Vladislav fled from Poland because the Czech prince Wenceslas II became king and he did not want to engage in an unequal battle with him. After the death of Vlaclav, Vladislav returned to his native country and began to gather the lands together again. In 1305, he regained power in Kuyavia, Sieradze, Sandomierz and Lenchice. And a year later in Krakow. Strangled a number of uprisings in 1310 and 1311. in Poznan and Krakow. In 1314 it merged with the Principality of Greater Poland. In 1320 he was crowned and returned royal power to the territory of fragmented Poland. Despite his nickname Loketok, which Vladislav received due to his small stature, he became the first ruler who began the path to the restoration of the Polish state.

His father's work was continued by his son Casimir III the Great (1333-1370). With his coming to power, it is considered to be the beginning of the golden era of Poland. The country went to him in a very deplorable state. Lesser Poland wanted to capture the Czech king Jan Luxemburzky, Greater Poland was terrorized by the Crusaders. In order to preserve the shaky peace, Casimir in 1335 signed a non-aggression pact with the Czech Republic, while giving him the territory of Silesia. In 1338, Casimir, with the help of the Hungarian king, who was also his brother-in-law, captured the city of Lvov and united Galician Rus with his country. The history of Poland in 1343 survived the first settlement agreement - the so-called "perpetual peace", which was signed with the Teutonic Order. The knights returned to Poland the territories of Kuyavia and Dobzhinsk. In 1345, Casimir decided to return Silesia. This led to the beginning of the Polish-Czech war. The battles for Poland were not very successful, and Casimir was forced on the day of November 22, 1348. sign a peace treaty between Poland and Charles I. The lands of Silesia remained behind the Czech Republic. In 1366, Poland captured the Belsky, Kholmsky, Volodymyr-Volynsky lands and Podolia. Inside the country, Casimir also carried out many reforms according to the Western model: in management, the legal system, and the financial system. In 1347, he issued a code of laws called the Wislice Statutes. He eased the duties of the krnstyan. Sheltered Jews who fled from Europe. In 1364, in the city of Krakow, he opened the first university in Poland. Casimir the Great was the last ruler of the Piast dynasty, and with his efforts he revived Poland, made it a large and strong European state.

Despite the fact that he married 4 times, not a single wife gave Casimir a son and his nephew Louis I the Great (1370-1382) became the heir to the Polish throne. He was one of the most just and influential rulers in all of Europe. During his reign, the Polish gentry in 1374. received a lead, which was called Kosice. According to him, the nobles could not pay most of all taxes, but for this, they promised to give the throne to the daughter of Louis.

And so it happened, the daughter of Louis Jadwiga was given as a wife to the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello, which opened a new page in the history of Poland. Jagiello (1386-1434) became the ruler of two states. In Poland he was known as Vladislav II. He began the path to the unification of the Principality of Lithuania with the Kingdom of Poland. In 1386 in the city of Kreva, the so-called Krevo Pact was signed, according to which Lithuania was included in Poland, which made it the largest country of the 15th century. Under this pact, Lithuania adopted Christianity, providing itself with assistance from the Catholic Church and the Pope. The prerequisites for such a union for Lithuania were a tangible threat from the Order of the Teutonic Knights, the Tatar bulk and the Moscow principality. Poland, in turn, wanted to protect itself from the oppression of Hungary, which began to lay claim to the lands of Galician Rus. Both the Polish gentry and the Lithuanian boyars supported the union, as an opportunity to gain a foothold in new territories, to gain new markets. The merger, however, did not go very smoothly. Lithuania was a state in which power was in the hands of the prince and feudal lords. Many, namely the brother of Jogaila, Vitovt, could not come to terms with the fact that after the union, the rights and freedoms of the prince would diminish. And in 1389. Vitov enlisted the support of the Teutonic Order and attacked Lithuania. The fighting continued from 1390-1395. although already in 1392. Vitovt reconciled with his brother and became the ruler of Lithuania, while Jagiello ruled in Poland.

Wayward behavior and constant attacks from the Teutonic Order led to the fact that in 1410. Lithuania, Poland, Russia and the Czech Republic united and held a large-scale battle at Gruwald, where they defeated the knights and got rid of their oppression for some time.

In 1413 in the city of Horodla, all questions on the unification of the state were clarified. The Union of Horodels decided that the Lithuanian prince was appointed by the Polish king with the participation of the Lithuanian council, the two rulers were to hold joint meetings with the participation of the lords, the position of voivode and castellans became a novelty in Lithuania. Following this union, the Principality of Lithuania embarked on the path of development and recognition, and turned into a strong and independent state.

After the union, Kazimierz Jagiellonchik (1447-1492) ascended the throne in the Principality of Lithuania, and his brother Vladislav took the throne in Poland. In 1444 King Vladislav died in battle, and power passed into the hands of Casimir. This renewed the personal union and for a long time made the Jagiellonian dynasty heirs to the throne, both in Lithuania and in Poland. Casimir wanted to reduce the power of the nobles as well as the church. But he did not succeed, and he was forced to accept their right to vote during the Diet. In 1454 Casimir provided representatives of the nobility with the so-called Neshav Statutes, which resembled the Magna Carta in their content. In 1466 a joyful and very expected event happened - the end of the 13th war with the Teutonic Order came. The Polish state won. October 19, 1466 A peace treaty was signed in Torun. After him, Poland regained such territories as Pomerania and Gdansk, and the order itself was recognized as a vassal of the country.

In the 16th century, the history of Poland experienced its dawn. It has become one of the largest states in all of Eastern Europe, with a rich culture, economy and constant development. Polish became the state language and replaced Latin. The concept of law, as power and freedom for the population, took root.

With the death of Jan Olbracht (1492-1501), a struggle began between the state and the dynasty that was in power. The Jagiellonian family was faced with the displeasure of the wealthy population - the gentry, who refused to give service in his favor. There was also a threat of expansion from the Habsburgs and the Moscow principality. In 1499 the Union of Horodel resumed, for which the king was elected at the elective congresses of the gentry, although the applicants were only from the ruling dynasty, so the gentry received their spoonful of honey. In 1501, the Lithuanian prince Alexander, for a place on the Polish throne, gave the so-called Melnitsky lead. Behind him, power was in the hands of parliament, and the king had only the function of chairman. Parliament could impose a veto - a ban on the ideas of the monarch, and also, without the participation of the king, decide on all issues of the state. Parliament became two chambers - the first chamber - the Sejm, with the petty nobility, the second - the Senate, with the aristocracy and the clergy. Parliament controlled all the expenses of the monarch, and issued sanctions for receiving funds. The higher versts of the population demanded even more indulgences and privileges. As a result of such reforms, the actual power was concentrated in the hands of magnates.

Sigismund I (1506-1548) The Old and his son Sigismund August (1548-1572) put all their efforts into reconciliation of the conflicting parties and satisfaction of the needs of these miles of population. It was customary to put the king, the senate and ambassadors on equal terms. This somewhat calmed the growing protests within the country. In 1525 Master of the Teutonic Knights, whose name was Albrecht of Brandenburg, was initiated into Lutheranism. Sigismund the Old transferred the Duchy of Prussia to him, although he remained the overlord of these places. Such a union, two centuries later, turned these territories into a strong empire.

In 1543 another outstanding event in the history of Poland happened. Nicolaus Copernicus declared, proved and even issued a book that the earth is not the center of the universe and rotates around its axis. In medieval times, the statement is shocking and risky. But later, found confirmation.

During the reign of Sigismund II Augustus (1548-1572). Poland blossomed and turned into one of the powerful powers in Europe. He turned his hometown of Krakow into a center of culture. Poetry, science, architecture, and art were revived there. It was there that the Reformation began. On November 28, 1561, an agreement was signed, according to which Livonia was under the protection of the Polish-Lithuanian country. Russian feudal lords received the same rights as Catholic Poles. In 1564 allowed the Jesuits to carry out their activities. In 1569, the so-called Union of Lublin was signed, after which Poland and Lithuania were united into one state of the Commonwealth. This marked the beginning of a new era. The king is one person for two states and he was elected by the ruling aristocracy, laws were adopted by parliament, a single currency was introduced. For a long time, the Commonwealth territorially became one of the largest countries, second only to Russia. This was the first step towards gentry democracy. The legal and economic system was strengthened. The safety of citizens was ensured. The gentry received the green light in all their undertakings, as long as they benefited the state. For a long time, this state of affairs suited everyone, both the population and the monarchs.

Sigismund Augustus died without an heir, which led to the fact that kings began to be elected. 1573 Heinrich of Valois was chosen. His reign lasted a year, but for such a short line he accepted the so-called "free election", according to which the gentry chooses the king. A pact of consent was also adopted - an oath for the king. The king could not even appoint an heir, declare war, increase taxes. All these issues had to be agreed with Parliament. Even the wife of the king was selected by the senate. If the king behaved inappropriately, the people could not obey him. Thus, the king remained only for the title, and the country turned from a monarchy into a parliamentary republic. Having done business, Henry calmly left France, where he sat on the throne after the death of his own brother.

After that, Parliament could not appoint a new monarch for a long time. In 1575, having married a princess from the Jagiellonian family to the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory, they turned him into a ruler (1575-1586). He made a number of good reforms: he fortified himself in Gdansk, Livonia and freed the Baltic states from the attacks of Ivan the Terrible. Received support from the registered Cossacks

(Sigismund August was the first to apply such a term to the fugitive peasants from Ukraine, taking them into military service) in the fight against the Ottoman army. He singled out the Jews, giving them privileges and allowing them to have a parliament within the community. In 1579 opened a university in Vilnius, which became the center of European and Catholic culture. Foreign policy was aimed at strengthening their positions on the part of Muscovy, Sweden and Hungary. Stefan Batory became a monarch who began to return the country to its former glory.

Sigismund III Vasa (1587-1632) received the throne, but did not receive support from either the nobility or the population. They simply didn't like him. Since 1592 the idea of ​​​​fixation for Sigismund was the spread and strengthening of Catholicism. In the same year he was also crowned King of Sweden. He did not exchange Poland for Lutheran Sweden, and because of his non-appearance in the country and not conducting political affairs, he was overthrown from the Swedish throne in 1599. Attempts to regain the throne led Poland into a long and unequal war with such a powerful enemy. The first step towards the transfer of Orthodox subjects to complete submission to the Pope of Rome was the Union of Berestey in 1596. initiated by the king. The Uniate Church got its start - with Orthodox rites, but with submission to the Pope. In 1597 he moved the capital of Poland from the city of the kings of Krakow to the center of the country - Warsaw. Sigismund wanted to return absolute monarchy to Poland, limit all the rights of parliament, and hindered the development of voting. In 1605 ordered that Parliament's veto power be abolished. The reaction was not long in coming. And an uprising of citizens broke out in 1606. The rokosh uprising ended in 1607. July 6th Although Sigismund crushed the uprising, his reforms were never adopted. Sigismund also brought the country into a state of war with Muscovy and Moldova. In 1610 The Polish army occupies Moscow, winning the battle of Klushino. Sigismund puts his son Vladislav on the throne. Although they could not hold the power. The people rebelled and overthrew the Polish ruler. In general, the reign of Sigismund brought the country more harm and destruction than development.

The son of Sigismnd Vladislav IV (1632-1648) became the ruler in a country that had weakened from the war with Muscovy and Turkey. Ukrainian Cossacks attacked its territory. Enraged by the situation in the country, the gentry demanded even more liberties, and also refused to pay income tax. The situation in the country was bleak.

The situation did not improve even after the leadership of Jan Casimir (1648-1668). The Cossacks continued to torment the territory. The Swedes did not refuse such pleasure either. In 1655 A Swedish king named Charles X conquered the cities of Krakow and Warsaw. Cities passed from one army to another several times, the result was their total devastation and death of the population. Poland was tormented by constant battles, the king fled to Silesia. In 1657 Poland lost Prussia. In 1660 the long-awaited truce between the rulers of Poland and Sweden was signed in Oliva. But Poland continued the exhausting war with Muscovy, which led to the loss of Kyiv and the eastern banks of the Dnieper in 1667. uprisings rose up inside the country, the magnates, guided only by their own interests, destroyed the state. In 1652 it got to the point that the so-called "liberium veto" was used in personal interests. Any deputy could, with his vote, reject a law he did not like. Chaos began in the country, and Jan Casimir could not stand it and abdicated in 1668.

Mikhail Vyshnevetsky (1669-1673) also failed to improve life in the country, and also lost Podolia, giving it to the Turks.

After such a reign, Jan III Sobieski (1674-1696) ascended the throne. He began to return territories that had been lost during numerous hostilities. In 1674 with the Cossacks went on a campaign to liberate Podolia. In August 1675 defeated a large Turkish-Tatar army near the city of Lvov. France, as protector of Poland, in 1676 insisted on a peace treaty between Poland and Turkey. In October of that year, the so-called Zhuravinsky Peace was signed, after which Turkey gave 2/3 of the territory belonging to Ukraine to Poland, and the remaining territory was transferred to the Cossacks. February 2, 1676 Sobieski was crowned and given the name Jan III. Despite the support of the French, Jan Sobieski wanted to get rid of Turkish oppression and on March 31, 1683, he made an alliance with Austria. This event led to the offensive of the troops of Sultan Mehmed IV to Austria. The army of Kara-Mustafa Keprulu captured Vienna. On September 12 of the same year, Jan Sobieski with his army and the army of the Austrians near Vienna defeated the enemy troops, stopping the Ottoman Empire from advancing into Europe. But the impending threat from the Turks forced Jan Sobieski in 1686. sign an agreement called "Eternal Peace" with Russia. Russia received at its disposal the Left-Bank Ukraine and joined the coalition against the Ottoman Empire. Domestic policy aimed at restoring hereditary power was not successful. And the act of the queen, who offered to take various government positions for money, completely shook the power of the ruler.

For the next 70 years, the Polish throne was occupied by various foreigners. Ruler of Saxony - August II (1697-1704, 1709-1733). He enlisted the support of the Moscow prince Peter I. He managed to return Podolia and Volhynia. In 1699 concluded the so-called Charles Peace with the ruler of the Ottoman Empire. He fought, but without result, with the kingdom of Sweden. And in 1704. left the throne at the insistence of Charles XII, who gave power to Stanislav Leshchinsky.

Decisive for Augustus was the battle near Poltava in 1709, in which Peter I defeated the Swedish troops, and he returned to the throne again. 1721 brought the final victory of Poland and Russia over Sweden, the Northern War ended. This did not bring positive for Poland, because it lost its independence. At the same time, it became part of the Russian Empire.

His son August III (1734-1763) became a puppet in the hands of Rossi. The local population, under the leadership of Prince Czartoryski, wanted to cancel the so-called "liberium veto" and restore Poland to its former greatness. But the coalition led by the Pototskys prevented this in every possible way. And 1764. Catherine II helped Stanislav August Poniatkovsky (1764-1795) ascend the throne. He was destined to become the last king of Poland. He made a number of progressive changes in the monetary and legislative system, replaced the cavalry with infantry in the army and introduced new types of weapons. Wanted to override the liberium veto. In 1765 introduced such an award as the Order of St. Stanislaus. The gentry dissatisfied with such changes in 1767-1678. The Repninsky Diet was held, at which it was decided that all freedoms and privileges are reserved for the gentry, as well as Orthodox citizens and Protestants have the same state rights as Catholics. The conservatives did not miss the chance to create their own union, called the Bar Conference. Such events ignited a civil war, and the interference in its course by neighboring countries became undeniable.

The result of this situation was the first division of the Commonwealth, which took place on July 25 in 1772. Austria took the territory of Lesser Poland. Russia - captured Livonia, the Belarusian cities of Polotsk, Vitebsk and some part of the Minsk province. Prussia received the so-called Greater Poland and Gdansk. The Commonwealth ceased to exist. In 1773 destroyed the Jesuit order. All internal affairs were handled by the ambassador, who sat in the capital Warsaw, and throughout Poland from 1780. permanent troops were stationed from Russia.

May 3, 1791 the winners created a code of laws - the constitution of Poland. Poland was turning into a hereditary monarchy. All executive power belonged to the ministers and the parliament. They are elected every 2 years. "Liberium veto" the constitution cancels. Judicial and administrative autonomy was given to cities. A regular army was organized. The first prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom were adopted. The history of Poland has received worldwide recognition, because the constitution was the first written constitution in Europe, and the second in the whole world.

Such reforms did not suit the magnates who created the Targowice Confederation. They asked for even more support from the side of the Russian and Prussian troops, the result of such assistance was the subsequent division of the state. January 23, 1793 became the day of the next section. Territories were attached to Prussia, such as the city of Gdansk, Torun, the territories of Greater Poland, Mazovia. The Russian Empire took a huge part of the territories belonging to Lithuania and Belarus, Volhynia and Podolia. Poland was torn apart and ceased to be considered a state.

Such a turn in the history of Poland could not do without protests and uprisings. March 12, 1794 Tadeusz Kosciuszko became the leader of a massive popular uprising against the usurpers. The motto of which was the revival of Polish independence and the return of lost lands. On this day, the Polish soldiers went to Krakow. And on March 24, the city was liberated. On April 4, the peasants near Racławice defeated the tsarist troops. On April 17-18, Warsaw was liberated. This was done by artisans under the leadership of J. Kilinky. On April 22-23, the same detachment also liberated Vilna. The taste of victories led the rebels to demand decisive action and the continuation of the revolution. On May 7, Kosciuszko created the Polaniec station wagon, but the peasants did not like it. A series of defeats in battles, troops from Austria and the offensive of Russian troops on August 11 under the leadership of the famous general A.V. Suvorov forced the rebels to leave Vilna and other cities. On November 6, Warsaw surrendered. The end of November became sad, the tsarist troops crushed the uprising.

In 1795 the so-called third partition of Poland took place. Poland has been erased from the world map.

The subsequent history of Poland was no less heroic, but also sad. The Poles did not want to put up with the absence of their country, did not give up trying to restore Poland to its former power. They acted independently with uprisings, or were part of the troops of countries that fought against the invaders. In 1807 when, during the defeat of Napoleon's Prussia, the Polish troops played an important role in this victory. Napoleon gained power over the occupied territories of Poland during the 2nd partition and created there the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1807-1815). In 1809 he added to this principality the lands lost after the 3rd partition. Such a small Poland pleased the Poles and gave hope for complete liberation.

In 1815 when Napoleon was defeated, the so-called Congress of Vienna was assembled and territorial changes took place. Krakow became autonomous with a protectorate (1815-1848). The joy of the people, what has become, the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw lost its western lands, which were taken over by Prussia. She turned them into her own Principality of Poznań (1815-1846); the eastern part of the country received the status of a monarchy - under the name "Kingdom of Poland", went to Russia.

November 1830. There was an unsuccessful uprising of the Polish population against the Russian Empire. The same fate awaited the opponents of power in 1846 and 1848. In 1863 the January uprising broke out, which for two years did not succeed. There was an active Russification of the Poles. In 1905-1917. Poles took part in the 4 Dumas of Russia, while actively seeking the national autonomy of Poland.

In 1914 the world was drowned in the fires and devastation of the First World War. Poland received, as well as the hope of gaining independence, because the ruling countries fought among themselves, and many problems. The Poles had to fight for the country that owned the territory; Poland became a springboard for hostilities; The war exacerbated an already tense situation. The society was divided into two camps. Roman Dmovsky (1864-1939) and his comrades-in-arms believed that Germany created all the problems, and fiercely supported cooperation with the Entente. They wanted to unite all once Polish lands into autonomy under the protection of Russia. Representatives of the Polish Socialist Party acted more radically, their main desire was to defeat Russia. Liberation from Russian oppression was the main condition for independence. The party insisted on the creation of independent armed forces. Jozef Pilsudski created and led the garrisons of the people's army and took the side of Austria-Hungary in the battle.

The Russian ruler Nicholas I, in his declaration of 1914 of August 14, promised to accept the autonomy of Poland with all its lands under the protection of the Russian Empire. Germany and Austria-Hungary, in turn, two years later, on November 5, announced a manifesto, which stated that the Kingdom of Poland would be created on the territories belonging to Russia. In the month of August 1917. In France, they created the so-called Polish National Committee, whose leaders were Roman Dmowski and Ignacy Paderewski. Józef Haller was called to become commander-in-chief of the army. The history of Poland received an impetus for development on January 8, 1918. Wilson, President of the United States, insisted on the restoration of Poland. He called for Poland to regain its positions and become an independent country with open access to the Baltic Sea. In early June, she was recognized as a supporter of the Entente. October 6, 1918 taking advantage of the confusion in government structures, the Polish Regency Council made a declaration of independence. November 11, 1918 power passed to Marshal Pilsudski. The country received the long-awaited freedom, but faced certain difficulties: the lack of borders, the national currency, state structures, the devastation and fatigue of the people. But the desire to develop gave an unrealistic impetus to action. And January 17, 1919. at the fateful Versailles Conference, the territorial boundaries of Poland were determined: Pomerania was attached to its territory, access to the sea was opened, Gdansk received the status of a free city. July 28, 1920 the large city of Cieszyn and its suburbs were divided between two countries: Poland and Czechoslovakia. February 10, 1920 joined Vilna.

On April 21, 1920, Pilsudski teamed up with the Ukrainian Petliura and dragged Poland into the war with the Bolsheviks. The result was the offensive of the Bolshevik army on Warsaw, but they were defeated.

Poland's foreign policy was directed towards a policy of not joining any country or union. January 25, 1932 signed a bilateral non-aggression pact with the USSR. January 26, 1934 a similar pact was signed with Germany. This idyll did not last long. Germany demanded to give them the city, which was free - Gdansk and give them the opportunity to build highways and railways across the Polish border.

April 28, 1939 Germany broke the non-aggression pact, and on August 25 a German battleship landed on the territory of Gdansk. Hitler explained his actions by the salvation of the German people, who are under the yoke of the Polish authorities. They also staged a brutal provocation. On August 31, German soldiers dressed in Polish uniforms burst into the studio of a radio station in the city of Gleiwitz, accompanied by shots, read a Polish text that called for war with Germany. This message was broadcast on all radio stations in Germany. And September 1, 1939. at 0445, armed German troops began shelling Polish buildings, aircraft destroyed everything from the air, and the infantry sent their forces to Warsaw. Germany began its "blitzkrieg". 62 infantry divisions, 2 air navies were to quickly break through and destroy the defenses of Poland. The Polish command also had a secret plan called "West" in case of a military conflict. Following this plan, the army was supposed to prevent the enemy from reaching vital areas, conduct active mobilization and, having received support from Western countries, go on the counteroffensive. The Polish army was significantly inferior to the German one. 4 days was enough for the Germans to go 100 km inland. For a week, cities such as Krakow, Kielce and Lodz were occupied. On the night of September 11, German tanks entered the suburbs of Warsaw. On September 16, the cities were captured: Bialystok, Brest-Litovsk, Pshemishl, Sambir and Lvov. Polish troops, with the support of the population, waged a partisan war. On September 9, the Poznan garrison defeated the enemy over Bzura, and the Hel Peninsula did not surrender until October 20. Following the Molotov-Ribentrop Pact on September 17, 1939. like clockwork, the powerful Red Army entered the territory of western Ukraine and Belarus. On September 22, she entered Lvov without difficulty.

On September 28, Ribentrop signed an agreement in Moscow, according to which the border between Germany and the USSR was designated by the Curzon line. During the 36 days of the war, Poland was divided for the fourth time, between two totalitarian states.

The war brought a lot of grief and destruction to the country. Everyone suffered, despite their former power or wealth. The Jews suffered the most in this war. Poland is no exception in this regard. The Holocaust on its territory assumed a terrifying character. There were justified concentration camps for prisoners. They were not just killed there, they were mocked and carried out incredible experiments. The largest death camp is considered to be Auschwitz, but there were many smaller ones scattered around the country, and sometimes several in each city. People were scared and doomed.

On April 19, 1943, the inhabitants of the Warsaw ghetto could not stand it and on the night of Jewish Passover they began an uprising. From 400 yew. Only 50-70 thousand Jews remained alive in the ghetto at that time. of people. When the police entered the ghetto for a new batch of victims, the Jews opened fire on them. Methodically, in the weeks that followed, the SS corrals exterminated the inhabitants. The ghetto was set on fire and razed to the ground. In May, the Great Synagogue was blown up. The Germans declared the end of the uprising on May 16, 1943, although the outbreak of fighting continued until June 1943.

Another large-scale uprising took place on August 1, 1944. in Warsaw, as part of Operation Tempest. The main goal of the uprising was to oust the German army from the city, and show independence to the Soviet authorities. The beginning was rosy, the army was able to take control of most of the city. The Soviet army, for various reasons, stopped its offensive. September 14, 1944 The first Polish army strengthened its positions on the eastern bank of the Vistula and helped the rebels to move to the western bank. The attempt was not successful and only 1200 people were able to do it. Winston Churchill demanded radical action from Stalin to help the uprising, but this did not come to fruition, and the Royal Air Force made 200 sorties and dropped aid and military ammunition directly from the board. But even this could not turn the Warsaw uprising into a successful one, and it was soon brutally suppressed. The number of victims is not known for certain, but they say that there were 16,000 killed and 6,000 wounded, and this was only during the fighting. In the operations carried out by the Germans to clean up the rebels, about 150-200,000 civilians died. 85% of the entire city was destroyed.

For another year, the history of Poland experienced murder and destruction, and for a year there were constant battles and hostilities. The Polish army took part in all the battles against the Nazis. She was a member of various missions.

January 17, 1945 the capital was liberated from the Nazis. Germany announced its surrender.

The first Polish army was the second largest after the Soviet one, which took part in the war, and in particular in the storming of Berlin.

May 2, 1945 During the battles for Berlin, Polish troops planted a white and red flag of victory on the Prussian Victory Column and on the Brandenburg Gate. On this day, the modern history of Poland celebrates the day of the national flag.

On February 4-11, 1945, at the so-called Yalta Conference, Churchill and Roosevelt decided to attach the territories of Poland, which were located in the east, to the USSR. Poland compensates for the lost territories by receiving once German lands.

On July 5, 1945, the Polish government of Lublin was temporarily recognized as legitimate. Non-communists could also apply for a place in management. In August, a decision was made to annex to Poland the territories that belonged to the eastern parts of Prussia and Germany. 15% of the 10 billion reparations paid by Germany were to go to Poland. Post-war Poland became communist. The regular troops of the Red Army opened the hunt for members of various party forces. Boleslav Bieruta, a communist representative, became president. An active process of Stalinization began. In September 19948 general secretary Władysław Gomułka was removed from office due to his nationalistic biases. In the process of merging the two - the Polish Workers' Party and the Polish Socialist Party - in 1948, a new Polish United Workers' Party appeared. In 1949, the so-called United Peasant Party was approved. Poland received membership in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance of the USSR. June 7, 1950 signed an agreement between the GDR and Poland, beyond which the border of Poland in the west is located along the Oder-Neisse - the distribution line. In order to create a military coalition against the main enemy of the USSR - NATO, in 1955. the Warsaw Pact was signed. The coalition included such countries as: the USSR, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and for some time Albania.

Dissatisfaction with Stalin's policies led to mass riots in 1956. in Poznan. 50ths. people, workers and students, opposed the prevailing Soviet oppression. In October of this year, the nationalist Gomulka became the general secretary of the PZPR. He reveals all the abuses of power within the Communist Party, reveals the truth about Stalin and his policies. Removes from the post of Chairman of the Seim, also Rokossovsky and many other officers from the Union. By his actions he won some neutrality from the USSR. The lands were returned to the peasants, freedom of speech appeared, trade and industry gave the green light to all undertakings, workers could interfere in the management of enterprises, warm relations with the church were restored, and the production of missing goods was adjusted. The United States gave its economic assistance.

In the 1960s, the restored Soviet power canceled almost all of Gomulk's reforms. The pressure on the country increased again: peasant associations, censorship and anti-religious policies returned.

In 1967, the famous Rolling Stones gave a concert in the Palace of Culture in Warsaw.

And in March 1968. student anti-Soviet demonstrations swept across the country. The result of which were arrests and emigration. In the same year, the country's leadership refused to support the reforms of the so-called "Prague Spring". In August, under pressure from the USSR, Polish troops took part in the occupation of Czechoslovakia.

December 1970 was marked by mass demonstrations in the cities of Gdansk, Gdynia and Szczecin. People opposed the increase in prices for various goods, and mainly for products. It all ended sadly. About 70 workers were killed and about 1,000 were injured. Constant persecution and persecution of the “dissatisfied” led to the creation in 1798 of Committee of Public Protection, which was the first step to create an opposition.

October 16, 1978 the new Pope is not an Italian, but the Bishop of Krakow - Karol Wojtyla (John Paul II). He directs his works to bring the church closer to the people.

In July 1980, food prices skyrocketed again. A wave of strikes swept the country. The working class protested in Gdansk, Gdynia, Szczecin. This movement was also supported by miners in Silesia. The strikers united in committees and soon they developed 22 demands. They were economic and political in nature. People demanded lower prices, higher wages, the creation of trade unions, reduced levels of censorship, the right to rallies and strikes. The management accepted almost all requirements. This led to the fact that the workers began to en masse join trade union associations independent of the state, which soon turned into the Solidarity federation. Lech Walesa became its leader. The main requirement of the workers was the permission to manage the enterprises themselves, appoint management and select personnel. In September, Solidarity called on workers across Eastern Europe to form free trade unions. In December, the workers demanded a referendum to decide on the power of the Soviet Communist Party in Poland. Such a statement had an immediate reaction.

On December 13, 1981, Jaruzelski declared martial law in the country and arrested all the leaders of Solidarity. Strikes broke out, which were quickly suppressed.

In 1982 unions were established under the leadership of the country.

In July 1983 Pope John Paul II arrived in the country, which led to the abolition of the protracted martial law. Pressure from the international community granted an amnesty to the prisoners in 1984.

During 1980-1987. The economic situation in Poland worsened. The workers were also starving in the summer of 1988. strikes began in factories and mines. The government called for the help of the leader of the "Solidarity" Lech Walesa. These negotiations received the symbolic name of the Round Table. They decided to hold free elections, the legalization of "Solidarity".

June 4, 1989 elections were held. "Solidarity" pulled ahead, overtaking the Communist Party, and took all the leading positions in the government. Tadeusz Mazowiecki became the prime minister of the country. A year later, Lech Walesa became president. His leadership lasted one term.

In 1991 The Cold War officially ended. The Warsaw Pact was terminated. Early 1992 pleased with the active growth of GNP, new market institutions were created. Poland began active economic development. In 1993 opposition was formed - the Union of Democratic Left Forces.

In the next elections, Aleksander Kwasniewski, head of the Social Democratic Party, ascended to the presidency. His government did not start easily. Members of Parliament demanded an active policy of dismissing traitors to the country and those who had long collaborated or worked for the union, and after Russia. They put forward a law on lustration, but it did not pass by the number of votes. And in October 1998, Kwasniewski signed this law. Everyone who was in power had to frankly confess their ties with Russia. They were not fired from their positions, but this knowledge became public knowledge. If suddenly someone did not confess, and such evidence was found, then the official was forbidden to hold office for 10 years.

In 1999 Poland has become an active member of the NATO alliance. In 2004 entered the European Union.

Elections 2005 brought victory to Lech Kachinsky.

In November 2007, Donald Tusk was elected prime minister. This government structure managed to maintain a stable political and economic situation. And even during the crisis of 2008. Poles did not feel big problems. They chose neutrality in foreign policy leadership and avoided conflicts with both the EU and Russia.

April 2010 plane crash took the lives of the president and representatives of the colors of Polish society. It was a dark page in the history of Poland. People mourned the just leader, the country plunged into mourning for a long time.

After the tragic incident, it was decided to hold early elections. The first round on June 20 and the second on July 4, 2010. In the second round, Bronisław Komorowski, a representative of the party called Civic Platform, won with 53% of the votes, overtaking L. Kaczynski's brother, Yaroslav Kaczynski.

Party "Civil Platform" October 9, 2011 won the parliamentary elections. The parties also came to power: "Law and Justice" J. Kaczynski, "Movement of Palikot" J. Palikot, PSL - Polish peasant party leader W. Pawlak and the Union of Left Democratic Forces. The ruling Civic Platform party, along with the budding PSL, formed a coalition. Donald Tusk was again chosen as prime minister.

In 2004 he was elected President of the European Council.

The history of Poland has come a long and very difficult road to becoming an independent state. Today it is one of the developed and strong countries of the European Union. Harvested fields, high-quality roads, good salaries and prices, handicrafts, modern education, assistance to the disabled and the needy, developed industry, economy, courts and governing bodies, and most importantly, the people who are so proud of their country and would not exchange it for anything in the world – make Poland the country we know, appreciate and respect. Poland proved by its own example that even from a completely destroyed, fragmented state, it is possible to build a new competitive country.

As you remember, in the VI-VII centuries. During the Great Migration of Peoples, Slavic tribes settled in Eastern Europe. In the second half of the 10th century, the Polish prince Mieszko I (960-992) subjugated the tribes that settled along the Vistula River. Together with a 3,000-strong squad, he adopted the Christian faith and thereby greatly strengthened his power. He laid the foundation for the Polish state, the history of which you will get acquainted with in today's lesson.

Mieszko I fought for the unification of the Polish lands, made an alliance with the Holy Roman Empire against the Polabian Slavs, but at times supported the German feudal lords against the emperor. The unification of Poland was completed during the reign of Bolesław I the Brave (992-1025). He managed to annex the southern Polish lands. The capital of Poland was moved to the city of Krakow - a major trading center on the way from Kyiv to Prague. Boleslav I managed to capture the Czech Republic with Prague for a while, but soon the Czech Republic was freed from his power. Boleslav went on a campaign to Kyiv, trying to put his son-in-law on the throne, but to no avail. In the west, he fought long wars with the Holy Roman Empire. Shortly before his death, Boleslav was proclaimed king of Poland (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Poland under Boleslaw the Brave ()

In the middle of the 11th century, Poland entered a period of feudal fragmentation.

In the 13th century, Poland was going through difficult times. Dozens of small principalities existed on its territory. By the middle of the 13th century, the Teutonic Order captured all of Prussia and Pomorie. The Tatar invasion was also a great disaster for Poland. In 1241, the Mongol-Tatar army passed through all of Poland, turning cities and villages into piles of ruins. Mongol raids were repeated in the future.

In the XIII-XIV centuries, fragmented Poland gradually united. As in other countries, ordinary Polish townspeople and peasants, who suffered most from feudal civil strife, gentry knights, as well as the Polish clergy, oppressed by the Germans, were interested in a single strong state. Strong royal power could protect them from large feudal magnates. The magnates did not need the power of the king: they themselves could defend themselves or suppress any uprising of the peasants with the help of detachments of the gentry dependent on them. Cities led by German patricians also did not support the unification of the country. Many large cities (Krakow, Wroclaw, Szczecin) were part of the Hanseatic League and were more interested in trade with other countries than within the country.

The unification of Poland was accelerated by the need to defend against external enemies, especially from the Teutonic Order.

At the end of the XIII century, the unification of the Polish lands was headed by one of the princes - the energetic Vladislav I Loketek (Fig. 2). He entered into a struggle with the Czech king, who temporarily united the Czech and Polish lands under his rule. Vladislav was opposed by German knights and local magnates. The struggle was difficult: Prince Vladislav even had to leave the country for several years. But with the support of the gentry, he managed to break the resistance of his opponents and almost completely take over the territory of Poland. In 1320, Vladislav Loketek was solemnly crowned. But it was not possible to establish the power of the king over all of Poland. The magnates retained their possessions, power and influence. Therefore, the unification did not lead to a complete merger of individual lands: they retained their structure, their governing bodies.

Rice. 2. Vladislav Loketek ()

Loketek's successor Casimir III (1333-1370) (Fig. 3) concluded a peace treaty with the Czech Republic: its king renounced claims to the Polish throne, but retained some of the lands of Poland. For a while, Poland stopped the war with the Teutonic Order. Many Polish feudal lords tried to expand their possessions at the expense of the current Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian lands. In the middle of the XIV century, Polish feudal lords captured Galicia and part of Volhynia. Therefore, they temporarily abandoned the continuation of the struggle for the complete liberation of the indigenous Polish lands in the west and north of the country.

Rice. 3. Casimir III ()

Childless Casimir passed the throne to his nephew from his sister, Louis, King of Hungary; the powerful gentry agreed to this transfer, because Louis promised not to impose taxes without the consent of the people. During the reign of Louis, the power of the Polish gentry increased markedly. Louis bequeathed Poland to his daughter Jadwiga, who, under the terms of the Polish-Lithuanian union, married in 1385 the Lithuanian prince Jagiello, who became both the king of Poland and the grand duke of Lithuania. But the unification of the two states did not happen. The advantages that the Poles and Catholics received in Lithuania caused discontent among the Orthodox part of the Principality. The struggle for the independence of Lithuania was led by Vytautas. In 1392 Vytautas became the Grand Duke of the Principality of Lithuania, and Jagiello retained the Polish crown.

Bibliography

1. Agibalova E.V., G.M. Donskoy. History of the Middle Ages. - M., 2012
2. Atlas of the Middle Ages: History. Traditions. - M., 2000
3. An illustrated world history: from ancient times to the 17th century. - M., 1999
4. History of the Middle Ages: book. For reading / Ed. V.P. Budanova. - M., 1999
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6. Stories on the history of the Middle Ages / Ed. A.A. Svanidze. M., 1996

1. Poland.ru ().
2. Paredox.narod.ru ().
3. Poland.ru ().

Homework

1. When did the period of feudal fragmentation begin in the history of Poland?
2. What external opponents did Poland have to fight in the Middle Ages?
3. With the names of which rulers is the unification of the fragmented Polish lands associated?
4. How did relations between Poland and the Russian principalities develop?

The history of the country is closely connected with the general history of Europe and with the events that have taken place on the continent for the last millennium.

Ancient history of Poland

In ancient times, Germans, Goths, Slavs lived on these lands. Over time, the Slavic tribes began to unite, which ultimately led to the formation of Poland in the 9th century. The center of the then state was the city of Gniezno. In 966, Christianity of the Catholic rite was adopted. In 1320 the city of Krakow became the political center. In the fourteenth century, Galicia was annexed. In 1385, after the conclusion of the Union of Krevo, a united Letovo-Polish state arose, Catholicism began to spread in Lithuania and the Western Russian lands.

History of the Commonwealth

1569 - the date of the conclusion of the Union of Lublin. As a result of this event, the state of the Commonwealth was formed. The kingdom was a confederation of the Principality of Lithuania and Poland, headed by a king elected by the Sejm. In 1648, an uprising began under the leadership of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, and later, from 1654 to 1667, a war took place between Russia and the Commonwealth. These events led to the weakening of the Commonwealth and to the loss of Kyiv and the lands that she owned on the left bank of the Dnieper. The further gradual decline of the kingdom led, at the end of the eighteenth century, to the three partitions of Poland. The country was divided between Prussia, Austria and Russia.

Period without independence

After Napoleon defeated Prussia, the Duchy of Warsaw was created on the part of Poland that belonged to Prussia. After the defeat of Napoleon, another division of the country was carried out. Its fate was decided at the Congress of Vienna. It was assumed that the Polish lands will be granted autonomy in Prussia and in Austria and in Russia. As a result, it so happened that autonomy was given only by the Russian Empire, as a result of which the autonomous Kingdom of Poland was formed as part of Russia.

Recent history of Poland

In 1918 the independence of Poland was proclaimed. Yuzev Pilsudski became the first head of state after gaining independence. From 1919 to 1921, the newly formed state was at war with the Soviet Union. The result of the war was the signing of a peace treaty in Riga. This treaty defined the borders between the countries. Western Belarusian and Western Ukrainian lands went to Poland. In 1939 the country was occupied by German troops, in the same year the Western Ukrainian and Western Belarusian lands were ceded to the USSR. Poland was liberated from Germany by the Soviet Union. In 1952, the country was named the Polish People's Republic, and in 1955 it became a member of the Warsaw Pact. In 1989, free elections were held in the country. Reforms began in the republic. In 1999, the state became a member of NATO, and in 2004 joined the European Union.

POLAND AND POLE IN

MIDDLE AGES

The Middle Ages in the history of Poland were a creative era, although this period also included such catastrophic events as the collapse of the state after the death of Mieszko II, the Mongol invasions, the loss of more than two hundred years of the Gdansk Pomerania and the loss of Silesia. However, positive developments prevailed. It created its own state organization, which managed to defend in the centuries-old struggle. Its preservation was ensured, first of all, by the ruling dynasty and the Polish Church. Over time, a common historical memory was added to the institutional factors of maintaining unity. The political elite acted as the guardian of the historical tradition, but, thanks to oral traditions, this tradition was also available to other social strata.

In the Middle Ages, the Polish economy developed, agricultural productivity increased significantly, new technologies were mastered, cities appeared, the population density more than doubled, and the standard of living improved markedly. Of course, there were fluctuations in the market conditions, periods of acceleration and deceleration of growth. During the emergence of the state (X-XI centuries), the burden of its creation fell on the shoulders of the common people, which led to a decrease in the standard of living and caused a revolt of the dependent population. The decentralization of power that took place from the middle of the 11th century released social initiative and contributed to an increase in labor productivity and the expansion of production, the spread of higher forms of economic organization, as well as an increase in the standard of living of most social strata. The period of dynamic development was the era of colonization based on German law. Foreign legal institutions, technologies and capitals came to the country. External and internal migration contributed to the emergence of many new settlements. However, the consequence of rapid changes has become new contradictions and conflicts. More progressive methods of farming in the villages under German law gave large harvests and ensured their inhabitants well-being, inaccessible to other peasants. The wealth of the merchants, especially in large cities, who participated in foreign trade and possessed significant sums of money, significantly exceeded the funds that local knights and even mighty owners could have at their disposal. The gradual destruction of the system of princely law deprived the value of a group of officials who once stood at the top of the social and property hierarchy.

The economic growth of individual regions occurred at different times. In the ninth century the lands of the Vistulas were in the lead, and a century later, the territories of the meadows. Then the center of statehood again moved to Krakow. In the XIII century. The restructuring of economic life took place most rapidly and intensively in Silesia. Since that time, it has surpassed other destinies in terms of population density and the number of cities. Mazovia, which did not suffer during the pagan uprising of the 30s of the 11th century, and under Boleslav the Bold and Vladislav Herman belonged to the populated and rich regions of the Polish state, during the period of specific fragmentation, on the contrary, lost its positions in the 14th-15th centuries . already noticeably lagged behind other Polish lands. After the loss of Silesia during the entire XIV century. Lesser Poland played a leading role in the economy of the Kingdom of Poland. In the XV century. Gdansk Pomerania was added to it.

Changes in the meaning of individual regions can only to a certain extent be explained by internal processes. The international position of Poland, the influence of neighboring states and economic regions also played a role. It is necessary to keep in mind both the armed actions and the devastation associated with them, as well as the economic expansion and migration of the population. The lagging behind of Mazovia was not least due to the Prussian and Lithuanian raids, but it was also important that this lot remained on the sidelines of colonization based on German law. The rapid development in the 13th-14th centuries of Lesser Poland became possible precisely due to colonization, trade, cultural and political relations with Hungary, as well as an intermediary role in the timber and grain trade in the Vistula basin.

In general, the Polish lands in the Middle Ages still lagged behind in their development from the centers of European culture in the western and southern parts of the continent. This lag was due to the geographical position and the fact that Poland, like other territories of Central and Eastern Europe, only in the X century. entered the circle of European civilization. Accession to Europe did not lead to the stagnation of its own creative forces. The perceived foreign designs were adapted to Polish conditions. The Polish state, society and culture not only preserved, but also developed their originality. Until the 14th century, Poland moved along a path similar to that followed by more advanced societies, and gradually reduced the distance between them and itself. In the XV century. she created completely original forms of internal organization and culture, while maintaining and even strengthening ties with the community of Christian Europe.

What was Poland for this community? Its name appeared in sources of foreign origin already at the end of the 10th century. At first, it meant only the land of the meadows, but already at the beginning of the 11th century, the whole state of Boleslav the Brave was called that. However, in the early Middle Ages, the circle of people informed about the existence, position, potential of Poland and the policy of its sovereigns was extremely narrow. People who belonged to the political elite in neighboring states and in such centers of universal power as the imperial and papal courts knew about it. You can add a small number of Christian, Muslim and Jewish merchants who knew Poland in connection with their trading activities. The newly converted country attracted the attention of the clergy, primarily German, but also French and Italian. Polish abbeys, Benedictine, and later Cistercian and Norbert, maintained contacts with their order centers. From among the French clergy came the author of the first Polish chronicle, Gallus Anonymus, who wrote at the beginning of the 12th century. Natives of Germany, Italy and, possibly, France were the builders of the first Romanesque cathedrals and the creators of the sculptures decorating the churches.

In the XIII century. information about Poland spread much more widely. Such forms of contacts as dynastic unions, relations with the apostolic capital, and international trade became more intense. There were also new forms in which many people were involved. Colonization based on German law caused an influx of Walloons, Flemings and Germans into the country - the predominant among the settlers. In the fight against the Prussians, after the appearance of the Teutonic Order on the Polish borders, Western knights took part. Numerous and very active communities of Franciscans and Dominicans were in contact with the monasteries of other ecclesiastical provinces. Previously rare travels of the Poles in the XIII century. increased somewhat. Polish clerics, though not numerous, studied at the universities of Italy and France, thus reaching the main centers of European culture.

Poland drew attention in connection with an unusually formidable event, which was the Mongol invasion. Europe had not known such invasions for several centuries, and interest in the Mongols was enormous. In addition, there were calculations for their Christianization. In a mission sent by the Pope to the Mongol Khan and led by the Franciscan Giovanni de Plano Carpini (1245–1247), Benedict the Pole and a Silesian monk known as de Bridia took part. (71)

In the XIV-XV centuries. Poland has forever taken a firm place in the minds of Europeans. A special role was played by diplomatic contacts with the papal and imperial courts and the dispute between Poland and the Teutonic Order, submitted to the meetings of the Council of Constance. Knightly wanderings still brought the Germans, the British and the French to the order state, however, the Polish knights became famous at foreign courts. The most famous of them was Zawisza Cherny, who served Sigismund of Luxembourg. Another channel for spreading news about Poland was the Baltic trade.

The Christianization of Poland and other countries of Central and Eastern Europe expanded the circle of Christian civilization. But in addition to this passive role, Poland performed other functions for this community.

Already under Boleslaw the Brave, an attempt was made to Christianize the Prussians neighboring Poland. Mission of St. Vojtecha ended with his martyrdom, however, it increased the prestige of Poland and gave its rulers the opportunity to achieve the foundation of an archbishopric. The attempts to convert the Prussians, renewed in the 12th century, ended in failure, and the German rulers took advantage of the conversion of the population of Western Pomerania. Only at the end of the Middle Ages did the attractiveness of the Polish state system, the way of life of its population, as well as its intellectual and political potential, prove to be sufficient for the successful Christianization of Lithuania. Thus, Poland fulfilled its duty in the expansion of Christian civilization. Later, scientists of the Krakow Academy, rejecting violence and arguing with the Teutonic Order, referred to the right of individual peoples to decide their own fate. This approach was based on the principle of tolerance. The creation of a state model that was tolerant towards other confessional, religious and ethnic groups, which was not always clear to representatives of other Christian societies, was an important contribution of Poland to European culture.

For other countries of the continent, medieval Poland for a long time acted as a country that borrowed ideas, technologies and models of organization. In addition, it was one of those places where migration from Western countries rushed. However, as the state, economy and culture developed, Poland itself took over the baton in the dissemination of new ideas. Moreover, she herself began to generate new ideas, and also became a country from where news about the east of Europe came to the West. In the XV century. Poland already represented a key element of the political system of Central and Eastern Europe, necessary for its functioning and development, and this was taken into account at the pan-European level.

How did the Poles themselves assess their political and cultural community? What was their consciousness, what connections were most important to them? The man of the Middle Ages lived within the framework of small and self-sufficient local communities, rural and urban, often coinciding with the boundaries of one parish and the territory covered by the activities of the local market. In addition to them, however, regional communities gradually formed, corresponding to the destinies of the period of fragmentation, as well as connections at a higher level - state and national. At first, the scope of these latter was rather narrow. Those whose activities were not limited to local boundaries, but covered the entire state - in the political, ecclesiastical or commercial field, remembered their state and national affiliation.

In the X-XI centuries. The Polish state created an organizational and territorial framework in which tribal groups that were close in language and culture found themselves. Other groups, no less close, which remained outside the Piast state (as the population of Pomerania), did not finally become part of the later national community. At that time, the cultural and linguistic differences between the Polish and Czech tribes were no greater than the differences between the Polans and the Vistulas. But the presence of their own states led to the gradual formation of two different peoples. During the period of specific fragmentation, national ties began to prevail over state ties. They were symbolized by a common dynasty, a common territory, the name "Poland", applied to all specific principalities, a single church province, common Polish cults of Sts. Vojtech and Stanislav and the similarity of legal practice in all principalities. The age-old tradition of their own, centralized statehood and a common history were of great importance. The popularity of the chronicle of Vincent Kadlubek, who glorified the deeds and virtues of the Poles, is the most striking evidence of their pride in their own past. This past, however, was carried back far into the depths of the centuries, to the pre-state era, to mythical times, retelling the legends about Krak, Wanda, later about Lech and other glorious ancestors. term natio identified people of common origin and attributed this feature to the Polish community. The term was also used gens, bearing in mind the commonality of the language. These two traits characterized not only the nationally conscious elite, but other Poles as well. Thus, the circle of groups conscious of their national identity remained open to those who, thanks to advancement in the social ladder and cultural development, passed into it from strata that did not have such a consciousness and did not feel the need for a sense of national community.

Linguistic criteria, less significant in the 10th-11th centuries, when groups of Western Slavs differed little from each other, became more noticeable in the 13th century and played a large role in Poland. During this period, there was a sense of danger to the original cultural values ​​associated with the actions of foreign invaders and colonization based on German law. Ethnic clashes peaked at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, and their source, in addition to political and economic activities, was the question of the use of the Polish language during the sermon, which was required by the statutes of the synod of 1285. The obligatory use of the language of the parishioners by the clergy had a great influence on the development of the Polish literary language. Even earlier, the language of the ruling elite stood out, which was common for the entire territory of the state and included terms unknown in the tribal era from the sphere of public administration. Owning it has become one of the signs of belonging to the ruling group. The explanation of the truths of the faith in Polish and concern for their unambiguity forced the church to develop a set of Polish terminology that was used throughout the Polish province. The most ancient monuments of the Polish language include the 13th-century the song "The Mother of God" and the "Sventokshizh sermons" recorded at the beginning of the 14th century.

14th century became a period of strengthening national feeling in broad circles of Polish society, which was the result of an external threat and, above all, wars with the Teutonic Order. Unusual evidence of the state of self-consciousness of the then Poles, representing various social strata, is the testimony of witnesses at the Polish order processes. They referred to the belonging of the Gdansk Pomerania to the Kingdom of Poland, appealing to the history of this land, dynastic rights, and the unity of the church organization. They also said that "all people know about it so much that ... no tricks will allow you to hide the facts." These witnesses were appanage princes, bishops, mayors, rectors of churches, petty knights and townspeople.

In the XIV century. the conditions for the formation of the Polish people changed radically. On the one hand, more than a third of the population who spoke Polish ended up outside the united kingdom. On the other hand, this kingdom itself was not ethnically homogeneous, since Germans, Rusyns, Jews and people who spoke other languages ​​lived in it along with the Poles. The situation became even more complicated after the union with Lithuania, and in the XV century - after the return of the Gdansk Pomerania. Nevertheless, in conditions of tolerance, various ethnic and religious groups coexisted quite harmoniously with each other. The Polish national consciousness, which appealed to a common origin, language and customs, was superimposed by the consciousness of nationality, which connected the inhabitants of Lithuania and the Crown, belonging to different ethnic groups. It was (or could be) equally inherent in the Germans from Torun, the Rusyns from Volhynia, the Poles from Greater Poland or the Jews from Krakow. State affiliation bound these people sometimes more strongly than ethnic consciousness, which is proved by the efforts of the German townspeople of Gdansk, Torun and Elbląg, undertaken with the aim of incorporating Prussia into Poland. The conflicts between Poland and Lithuania with the Teutonic Order also had not a national, but an interstate character.

This did not at all lead to the withering away of local and regional ties. Everyone felt like a member of their own small community, and most still did not know the connections of a higher level and did not need them. However, for those who wished to go beyond the circle of local issues in their activities, whether it was a nobleman who was involved in politics, or a cleric who participated in the life of his diocese and the Polish province, or a petty knight who went to war, or a merchant engaged in interregional and international trade, or a peasant who was looking for a better life - they all had to deal with people who lived in the same state of a different language, different culture, religion. Thanks to this, in the 15th century, along with tolerance towards other cultures and religions, the Poles developed an ever stronger understanding of the originality and originality of their own culture. Thus, the growth of national self-consciousness took place, which is not at all a paradox, during the period of the creation of a multinational state.

The 15th century was a time of genuine prosperity for Poland. In the field of international relations, he was associated with victorious wars and successes in dynastic politics; in domestic politics - with the expansion of the circle of persons involved in government. A specific feature was the multiplicity of the knightly class and the equality of its members. All of them received privileges that recognized their personal and property inviolability.

Approximately until the middle of the XV century. the class character of the state contributed to the spread of consciousness of state belonging among the lower classes. However, in subsequent decades, when the privileges for chivalry increasingly disrupted the inter-class balance, political communitas began to turn more and more into a gentry. This gave rise to rather complex processes. On the one hand, unprivileged groups were gradually squeezed out of the political community, whose activities were limited to purely local issues. On the other hand, the gentry of non-Polish origin was included in this community on the basis of class and state ties. The estate state turned into a gentry.

In Polish culture, as well as in economics and politics, in the Middle Ages there was both an increase and a decrease in activity. Our knowledge of the cultural achievements of that period is incomplete, since, first of all, works of Latin, bookish culture have been preserved and known, while works of folk culture based on oral tradition have been lost.

The art of the early Middle Ages was elitist. The few monuments of Romanesque art that have come down to us, the buildings and sculpture associated with them, resemble the best European examples. The chronicles of Gall Anonymus and Wincentius Kadlubek were also not inferior to modern foreign writings. The patronage of artists and writers was provided by the princely court, and from the 12th century, also by the courts of bishops and representatives of the highest secular nobility. In this environment, the first Polish knightly epic arose - "The Song of the Deeds of Peter Wlostowitz", the so-called "Carmen Mauri". (72) A similar narrative, based on literary plots known in Europe, but adapted to Polish realities - the story of Walter from Tynec and Wislaw from Wislice - found its way into the pages of a 14th-century book. "Greater Poland Chronicle". These works were more often retold orally, possibly in Polish, thanks to which the Poles learned the art of gracefully expressing their thoughts and describing various events.

At the beginning of the 13th century, beautiful works of Romanesque art continued to be created, but in the following decades there were some changes. The first Gothic churches had already begun to be erected in large cities, but the Romanesque style still dominated in the provincial centers, and already mastered schemes were repeated every now and then. The spread of art and education was achieved at the price of a noticeable drop in their level. This process continued into the 14th century, when Gothic finally reached the provinces. But even in the most outstanding works that arose in the first half of this century, the imitation of old-fashioned Gothic examples from neighboring countries is striking. The best works include tombstones of rulers. The first of these was the Silesian tombstone of Henryk IV Probus, later the tombstones of Vladislav Loketek and Casimir the Great appeared in the Wawel Cathedral. In the second half of the XIV century. projects have become more ambitious. These include the original double-nave churches built by the kings. An important sign of increased cultural demands was the founding of the Krakow Academy.

A long period of strengthening the foundations of culture, developing a network of parish education and improving the Polish language brought magnificent results in the 15th century. Polish Gothic art in the field of sacred and secular architecture, as well as in sculpture, painting, woodcarving, jewelry, reached a high artistic level, ceasing to be an old-fashioned imitation of foreign works. Its symbol was the altar dedicated to the Virgin Mary from the parish church in Krakow, created by the Krakow and Nuremberg guild master Wit Stosh (Stwosh). Along with such perfect works, many other altars, sculptures and frescoes appeared. These works, among other things, performed a didactic function, introducing believers to the truths of faith through artistic images. Chants, church music and liturgical drama played a similar role. This new art was closer to man: against the well-known background of medieval everyday life, scenes filled with lyricism from the history of the Holy Family, the torment of Christ, the suffering of the Mother of God were depicted. It both shaped and expressed the views of the people of that time. The fact that this direction, especially in Lesser Poland and Silesia, experienced German, Czech and Hungarian influence, did not deprive it of its originality and typical Polish features. There were many images of local saints, primarily St. Stanislav and St. Jadwiga of Silesia, as well as the founders of churches and monasteries. Gothic tomb art reached its pinnacle in the stunningly expressive tombstone of Casimir Jagiellon, a masterpiece by Vit Stoš (Stvoš).

The patronage of artists during the Jagiellonian period made it possible to add a new element to the prevailing aesthetic models. They were frescoes in the Russian-Byzantine style. On the recommendation of Vladislav Jagiello (Jagiello), they decorated the Gothic chapel in the Lublin castle, later similar paintings appeared in Sandomierz, Wislice, Gniezno and in the Wawel castle. Their creators had to adapt the figurative system of Eastern Christians to the internal layout of Gothic buildings. As a result of the confrontation and interaction of such dissimilar styles, works never seen before were born. The famous icon-painting image of the Mother of God of Częstochowa experienced Byzantine influence. However, the inherent sacral rigor of the image was somewhat smoothed out after the icon was in the 15th century. rewritten (it was damaged during the Hussite wars). Thus, already in the 15th century, the synthesis of Eastern and Western models became one of the remarkable features of Polish art.

The patronage of the arts by the kings exalted state power, the patronage of bishops reminded of the place of the church in Christian society, the patronage of nobles and chivalry contributed to the glorification of the families of the founders of churches and monasteries. In the XV century. The townspeople also began to patronize art, which played a significant role in the second half of the century. The townspeople, who, like mayowners and knights, imitated the style of royal temples and cloisters, as if declared their support for the policies of the rulers. However, as far as sculpture, painting and decor are concerned, it was a completely independent direction, firmly connected with the environment of the urban patriciate, workshops and religious brotherhoods.

In artistic terms, the art of Poland belonged to a wider circle of art in Central Europe. Moreover, if in the XIV century. the main motifs were borrowed from the Czech Republic, Hungary, Austria and East Germany, then in the 15th century local features began to predominate in the work of Polish artists. This gave patrons a legitimate sense of pride and satisfied their ambitions. A new phenomenon in this era was the influence on the art of Russia; at the same time, the Polish side itself was inspired by Russian models, as a result of which, as already noted, there was a synthesis of two directions.

15th century literature kept up with the fine arts. Genre diversity, the ever more frequent use of the Polish language, the expansion of the circle of authors - all this had as its source an increase in the general level of culture, the growth of national and state self-awareness and the desire to express these feelings. The most important role in this process was played by the spread of education at all levels - from parochial schools to the Krakow Academy. The treatises of Krakow professors helped determine the directions of foreign policy and develop methods of diplomacy. In addition to studying philosophy, jurisprudence and linguistics, the academy conducted research in the field of mathematics and astronomy. In the second half of the 15th century, the influence of Italian humanism was already felt in Krakow, the propagandist of which was Callimachus, a poet, historian and diplomat. An important center of Polish humanism was the court of Archbishop Grzegorz of Lvov from Sanok.

Throughout the 15th century More than 17 thousand students enrolled in the Krakow Academy, including 12 thousand subjects of the Crown. At least about a quarter of them received a bachelor's degree. Graduates and former students became teachers of educational institutions of a lower level, some of them became employees of the royal, episcopal, mayoral and city offices. The number of literate people has increased markedly. Among the intellectual elite, their own libraries appeared, supplementing the book collections at cathedrals and monasteries. A significant part of the knights and townspeople could read and write, and in addition, a certain percentage of peasant children who wanted to improve their social status. These people were the creators and consumers of a much larger number of literary works than in past centuries. In 1473, the first printing house appeared in Krakow.

Of the writings in Latin, the most outstanding achievement was the chronicle of Jan Długosz, which described the history of Poland from legendary times to the contemporary author of the second half of the 15th century. The chronicle was not the history of the dynasty, but the history of the state and the Polish people. The author considered Poland and the Poles as a state community bound by a single structure and a common past. The appeal to history was supposed to serve urgent needs - the development of all-Polish state patriotism, replacing local patriotism. The idea of ​​Poland as a whole was served by a magnificent geographical description, which was an introduction to the chronicle. Thinking in terms of state categories did not conflict with Długosz's sense of the ethnic and linguistic community of the Poles and the idea of ​​the unity of their historical territory. Therefore, he extremely regretted the loss of Silesia and rejoiced at the return of the Gdansk Pomerania.

Although Latin remained the language of science, historiography and most of the literary works, in the 15th century. the Polish language played an increasingly important role. For centuries, songs, poems, legends and stories have been passed down orally. Some of them were recorded already at the end of the 13th-14th centuries. In the 15th century, their number increased, although it still remained small. Nevertheless, these works testify to the formation of the Polish literary language at the end of the Middle Ages. Writers who cared about the elegance and beauty of the language, gave it a normative form and sought to cleanse it of foreign accretions. The question of the origin of this language remains debatable. It is based on either the Wielkopolska or Lesser Poland dialect, but there is no doubt that already in the 15th century. it was this language that was used throughout Poland.

So, at the end of the Middle Ages, Polish culture reached a significant maturity. There was a national self-consciousness of the political elite; a stronger sense of connection with the state, which included various ethnic groups; the principle of internal religious tolerance and the rule of law took shape; there were guarantees for the participation of a significant part of society in the government of the country. Between the 15th century, so creative in many areas, and the "golden" 16th century, there is no noticeable gap. Before us, rather, a continuous line of ascending development. Without the achievements of the late Middle Ages, the flourishing of the Polish Renaissance would have been simply impossible - just like without the socio-political transformation of the 15th century. the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth could not have arisen. In this century, a solid foundation was laid for the 16th century, the most brilliant period in the history of Poland.

Chapter 3. POLES IN MOSCOW On June 20, 1605, False Dmitry solemnly entered Moscow. The impostor urgently needed a patriarch, and on June 24 he became Archbishop Ignatius of Ryazan, a Greek who arrived from Cyprus in Russia during the reign of Fyodor Ioannovich. Ignatius was the first Russian hierarch,