Contemporaries said that this would be a war that would put an end to all wars, and they were greatly mistaken. World War I began on August 1, 1914 with a provocation and regicide and ended with the first Compiègne truce on November 11, 1918. The influence on the territories and countries that participated in the war was so great that it became possible to sum up its results and conclude the Treaty of Versailles only in the middle of the next, 1919 of the year. Six out of ten people across the planet have experienced this war in one way or another. This is one of the dark pages in the history of mankind.

They say she was inevitable. The disagreements between the future participants were too strong, leading to constantly creating and collapsing alliances. The most inconsistent was precisely Germany, which almost at the same time tried to turn Great Britain against France and organize a continental blockade of Britain itself.

Prerequisites for World War I

If you look at the positions from which the countries were involved in the First World War of 1914-1918, the reasons, in fact, will lie on the surface. England, France and Austria-Hungary at the beginning of the twentieth century sought to redistribute the world map. The main reason for this was the collapse of colonialism and prosperity only at the expense of its own satellites. The main European powers were faced with a difficult choice, since the resources important for the economy and prosperity of the country (primarily its elite) could no longer be taken away from India or Africa.

The only thing Possible Solution hid precisely in military conflicts for raw materials, labor and territories for life. Major conflicts that flared up on the basis of territorial claims were as follows:

What started the war

It is very clear to say when the first one started World War(PMV). At the end of June 1914, on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the city of Sarajevo, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire Franz Ferdinand was killed. It was a provocation on the part of the Austrians and, with the active participation of British diplomats and the press, a reason for the escalation of the conflict in the Balkans.

The killer was a Serbian terrorist, a member of the extremist organization "Black Hand" (otherwise called "Unity or Death") Gavrilo Princip. This organization, along with other similar underground movements, attempted to spread nationalist sentiment throughout the Balkan Peninsula in response to the 1908 annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary, setting off the Bosnian crisis.

There have already been several assassination attempts on the account of such formations. both successful and unsuccessful, to prominent political figures of the empire and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The day of the assassination attempt on the Archduke was not chosen by chance, because on June 28 he was supposed to participate in events dedicated to the anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Such events on this date were considered by many Bosnians as a direct insult to their national pride.

In addition to the assassination of the Archduke, these days there were several attempts to eliminate public figures who opposed the outbreak of hostilities. So, a few days before June 28, an unsuccessful attempt was made on the life of Grigory Rasputin, known, among other things, for his anti-war sentiments and great influence at the court of Emperor Nicholas II. And the next day, June 29, Jean Jaures was killed. He was an influential French politician and public figure who fought against imperialist sentiments, colonialism and, like Rasputin, was an ardent opponent of the war.

British influence

After the tragic events in Sarajevo, the two largest powers in Europe - Germany and the Russian Empire - tried to avoid an open military confrontation. But this situation did not suit the British at all and diplomatic levers were put into play. So, after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand by Princip, the English press openly began to call the Serbs barbarians and call on the top of the Austro-Hungarian Empire to give them a decisive and tough answer. At the same time, pressure was created through the ambassador on Russian emperor, calling on Serbia to provide all possible assistance if Austria-Hungary decides on any provocations.

And she made up her mind. Almost a month after the successful assassination attempt on the heir, Serbia was presented with demands that were impossible to fulfill. For example, one of its points was the admission of police officers to the territory of a foreign state. The Serbs did not accept only this point, which, as expected, served as a declaration of war. Moreover, the first bombs fell on its capital the very next morning, which clearly indicated the readiness of the Austro-Hungarians to fight immediately.

Russian Empire, which has always been considered a shield of Orthodoxy and Slavism, had, after unsuccessful attempts at a diplomatic ceasefire, to declare the mobilization of the entire country. Thus, Russia's participation in the First World War was inevitable.

The course of the war

After a series of provocations, hotbed of military conflict began to flare up even faster. In about six months, two main military alliances were formed that took part in the confrontation:

Events of 1914

There were several major theaters of war- the war blazed in France, in Russia, in the Balkans, the Middle East and the Caucasus and in the former colonies of Europe. The German Schlieffen plan, which included a blitzkrieg, lunch in Paris and dinner in St. Petersburg, failed due to Germany's systematic underestimation of its rivals and repeated revision of strategic tables. In general, the vast majority of the participants in the war were absolutely sure of its imminent end, confidently speaking about the possibility of winning in a few months. No one expected the conflict to take on such proportions, especially on the Western Front.

First, Germany occupied Luxembourg and Belgium. At the same time, the French invaded Alsace and Lorraine, which were important for them, where, after the successful actions of the German army, which held back and then reversed the offensive, the situation changed dramatically. The French, instead of capturing their historical territories, ceded part of their land without putting up a strong enough resistance. After the events called by historians the "Run to the Sea" and the holding by France of its most important ports, a period of trench warfare followed. The confrontation severely exhausted both sides.

Eastern front was opened by an offensive on the territory of Prussia by Russian troops on August 17, and the very next day a major victory was won over the Austro-Hungarians in the Battle of Galicia. This made it possible to withdraw the empire from the confrontation with Russia for a long time.

Serbia this year drove the Austrians out of Belgrade and firmly occupied it. Japan declared war on the Triple Alliance and launched a campaign to take control of the German island colonies. At the same time, in the Caucasus, Turkey entered the war with Russia, entering into a coalition with the Austrians and Germans. Thus, she cut off the country from the allies and involved in hostilities on the Caucasian front.

The failure of Russia in 1915

On the Russian front, the situation worsened. The army was poorly prepared for an offensive in the winter, failed it and received a counter-offensive operation from the Germans in the middle of the year. Poorly organized supply of troops led to a large-scale retreat, the Germans carried out the Gorlitsky breakthrough and, as a result, first received Galicia, and then a significant part of Polish territory. After that, the stage of trench warfare began, largely due to the same reasons as in the west.

In the same year, on May 23, Italy entered the war with Austria-Hungary, which led to the collapse of the coalition. However, Bulgaria, which took part in the confrontation on its side in the same year, not only marked the rapid formation of a new union, but also accelerated the fall of Serbia.

Key moments in 1916

During this year of the war, one of its largest battles continued - battle of Verdun. Because of its scale, the nature of the collisions and the consequences, it was called the Verdun meat grinder. This is where the flamethrower was used for the first time. The losses of all troops amounted to over a million people. At the same time, the Russian army launched an offensive known as the Brusilovsky breakthrough, pulling significant German forces away from Verdun and easing the Entente's situation in the region.

The year was also marked by the largest naval battle - Jutland, after which the Entente fulfilled its main goal - to dominate the region. Some members of the enemy tried even then to agree on peace negotiations.

1917: Russia's exit from the war

1917 was rich in major events in the war. It was already obvious who would win. It is worth noting The 3 most important moments for understanding the situation:

• The United States, after waiting for time, joined the obvious winner - the Entente.
• The revolution in Russia actually brought her out of the war.
• Germany uses submarines, hoping thereby to turn the tide of battles.

1918: German capitulation

Russia's withdrawal from active hostilities made things easier for Germany, because without the Eastern Front, she could concentrate her forces on more important things. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded, parts of the Baltic region and the territory of Poland were occupied. After that, active operations began on the Western Front, which were not crowned with success for her. Other participants began to withdraw from the Quarter Union and conclude peace treaties with the enemy. In Germany, a revolution began to flare up, forcing the emperor to leave the country. The end of the active phase of hostilities can be considered the signing of the act of surrender of Germany on November 11, 1918.

If we talk about the results of the First World, then for almost all participating countries they were with a minus sign. Briefly on points:

It is worth noting that even then the prerequisites for the Second World War began to take shape. It was only a matter of time before a leader emerged who would rally the revenge-hungry inhabitants of defeated Germany.

In order to thoroughly understand how the First World War (1914-1918) began, you must first familiarize yourself with the political situation that developed in Europe by the beginning of the 20th century. The prehistory of the global military conflict was the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). It ended with the complete defeat of France, and the confederal union of German states was transformed into the German Empire. Wilhelm I became its head on January 18, 1871. Thus, a powerful state appeared in Europe with a population of 41 million people and an army of almost 1 million soldiers.

The political situation in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century

At first, the German Empire did not seek political dominance in Europe, as it was economically weak. But in 15 years, the country has gained strength and began to claim a more worthy place in the Old World. It must be said here that politics is always determined by the economy, and German capital had very few markets. This can be explained by the fact that Germany in its colonial expansion hopelessly lagged behind Great Britain, Spain, Belgium, France, and Russia.

Map of Europe by 1914. Germany and its allies are shown in brown. Entente countries are shown in green

It is also necessary to take into account the small areas of the state, the population of which was growing rapidly. It required food, but it was not enough. In a word, Germany gained strength, and the world was already divided, and no one was going to voluntarily give up the promised lands. There was only one way out - to take away the tidbits by force and provide their capital and people with a decent and prosperous life.

The German Empire did not hide its ambitious claims, but it could not stand alone against England, France and Russia. Therefore, in 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed a military-political bloc (Triple Alliance). Its consequence was the Moroccan crises (1905-1906, 1911) and the Italo-Turkish war (1911-1912). It was a test of strength, a rehearsal for a more serious and large-scale military conflict.

In response to the growing German aggression in 1904-1907, a military-political bloc of cordial consent (Entente) was formed, which included England, France and Russia. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, two powerful military forces were formed on the territory of Europe. One of them, led by Germany, sought to expand its living space, and the other force tried to counteract these plans in order to protect its economic interests.

Germany's ally Austria-Hungary was a hotbed of instability in Europe. It was a multinational country, which constantly provoked interethnic conflicts. In October 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Herzegovina and Bosnia. This caused sharp dissatisfaction with Russia, which had the status of a defender of the Slavs in the Balkans. Russia was supported by Serbia, which considered itself the unifying center of the southern Slavs.

A tense political situation was observed in the Middle East. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire that once dominated here began to be called the “sick man of Europe”. And therefore, stronger countries began to claim its territory, which provoked political disagreements and wars of a local nature. All of the above information has given a general idea of ​​the prerequisites for a global military conflict, and now it's time to find out how the First World War began.

Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife

The political situation in Europe was heating up every day and by 1914 had reached its peak. All that was needed was a small push, a pretext for unleashing a global military conflict. And soon such an occasion presented itself. It went down in history as the Sarajevo murder, and it happened on June 28, 1914.

Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophia

On that ill-fated day, a member of the nationalist organization "Mlada Bosna" (Young Bosnia) Gavrilo Princip (1894-1918) killed the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914) and his wife, Countess Sofia Chotek (1868-1914). "Mlada Bosna" advocated the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the rule of Austria-Hungary and was ready to use any methods for this, including terrorist ones.

The Archduke and his wife arrived in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, at the invitation of the Austro-Hungarian governor, General Oskar Potiorek (1853-1933). Everyone knew about the arrival of the crowned couple in advance, and the members of Mlada Bosna decided to kill Ferdinand. For this purpose, a battle group of 6 people was created. It consisted of young people, natives of Bosnia.

Early on the morning of Sunday, June 28, 1914, the royal couple arrived in Sarajevo by train. On the platform, she was met by Oskar Potiorek, journalists and an enthusiastic crowd of loyal associates. The arrivals and high-ranking greeters sat in 6 cars, while the Archduke and his wife were in the third car with a folded top. The motorcade pulled off and rushed towards the military barracks.

By 10 o'clock the inspection of the barracks was completed, and all 6 cars drove along the Appel embankment to the city hall. This time the car with the crowned couple moved second in the cortege. At 10:10 am, the moving cars caught up with one of the terrorists named Nedelko Chabrinovich. This young man threw a grenade at the car with the Archduke. But the grenade hit the convertible top, flew under the third car and exploded.

Detention of Gavrilo Princip, who killed Archduke Ferdinand and his wife

Shrapnel killed the driver of the car, injured passengers, as well as people who were at that moment near the car. A total of 20 people were injured. The terrorist himself swallowed potassium cyanide. However, that did not give the desired effect. The man vomited, and he, escaping from the crowd, jumped into the river. But the river in that place was very shallow. The terrorist was dragged ashore, and angry people brutally beat him. After that, the crippled conspirator was handed over to the police.

After the explosion, the cortege picked up speed and rushed to the city hall without incident. There, a magnificent reception awaited the crowned couple, and, despite the assassination attempt, the solemn part took place. At the end of the celebration, it was decided to curtail the further program due to the emergency situation. It was decided only to go to the hospital to visit the wounded there. At 10:45 a.m., the cars started off again and drove along Franz Josef Street.

Another terrorist, Gavrilo Princip, was waiting for the moving cortege. He was standing outside Moritz Schiller's Delicatessen, next to the Latin Bridge. Seeing a crowned couple sitting in a convertible car, the conspirator stepped forward, caught up with the car and was near it at a distance of only one and a half meters. He fired twice. The first bullet hit Sophia in the stomach, and the second in Ferdinand's neck.

After the execution of people, the conspirator tried to poison himself, but, like the first terrorist, he only vomited. Then Princip made an attempt to shoot himself, but people ran up, took away the gun and started beating the 19-year-old man. He was so beaten that in the prison hospital the killer had to amputate his hand. Subsequently, the court sentenced Gavrilo Princip to 20 years of hard labor, since, according to the laws of Austria-Hungary, he was a minor at the time of the crime. In prison, the young man was kept in the most difficult conditions and died of tuberculosis on April 28, 1918.

Wounded by the conspirator, Ferdinand and Sophia remained sitting in the car, which rushed to the governor's residence. There, they were going to provide medical assistance to the injured. But the couple died on the way. First, Sophia died, and after 10 minutes Ferdinand gave her soul to God. Thus ended the Sarajevo massacre, which became the pretext for the outbreak of the First World War.

july crisis

The July crisis is a series of diplomatic clashes between the leading powers of Europe in the summer of 1914, provoked by the Sarajevo assassination. Of course, this political conflict could be resolved peacefully, but the powerful of this world really wanted war. And such a desire was based on the belief that the war would be very short and effective. But it took on a protracted character and claimed more than 20 million human lives.

Funeral of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Countess Sofia

After the assassination of Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary stated that Serbian state structures were behind the conspirators. At the same time, Germany publicly announced to the whole world that in the event of a military conflict in the Balkans, she would support Austria-Hungary. This statement was made on July 5, 1914, and on July 23, Austria-Hungary issued a tough ultimatum to Serbia. In particular, in it the Austrians demanded that their police officers be allowed into the territory of Serbia to investigate and punish terrorist groups.

The Serbs could not agree to such a thing and announced mobilization in the country. Literally two days later, on July 26, the Austrians also announced mobilization and began to gather troops to the borders of Serbia and Russia. The final touch in this local conflict was July 28. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade. After the artillery preparation, the Austrian troops crossed the Serbian border.

Russian Emperor Nicholas II on July 29 proposed to Germany to resolve the Austro-Serbian conflict at the Hague Conference by peaceful means. But Germany did not respond to this. Then, on July 31, general mobilization was announced in the Russian Empire. In response, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, and war on France on August 3. Already on August 4, German troops entered Belgium, and its king Albert turned to the European countries-guarantors of its neutrality.

After that, Great Britain sent a note of protest to Berlin and demanded an immediate end to the invasion of Belgium. The German government ignored the note, and Great Britain declared war on Germany. And the final touch of this universal madness was August 6th. On this day, Austria-Hungary declared war on the Russian Empire. This is how the First World War began.

Soldiers in World War I

It officially lasted from July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918. Military operations were conducted in Central and Eastern Europe, the Balkans, the Caucasus, the Middle East, Africa, China, and Oceania. Nothing like this before the human civilization did not know. It was the largest military conflict that shook the state foundations of the leading countries of the planet. After the war, the world became different, but humanity did not grow wiser and by the middle of the 20th century unleashed an even larger massacre that claimed many more lives..

World War I (1914 - 1918)

The Russian Empire collapsed. One of the goals of the war is solved.

Chamberlain

The First World War lasted from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918. 38 states with a population of 62% of the world took part in it. This war was rather ambiguous and extremely contradictory described in modern history. I specifically cited Chamberlain's words in the epigraph to once again emphasize this inconsistency. A prominent politician in England (Russia's ally in the war) says that one of the goals of the war has been achieved by overthrowing the autocracy in Russia!

The Balkan countries played an important role in the beginning of the war. They were not independent. Their policy (both foreign and domestic) was greatly influenced by England. Germany by that time had lost its influence in this region, although it controlled Bulgaria for a long time.

• Entente. Russian Empire, France, Great Britain. The allies were the USA, Italy, Romania, Canada, Australia, New Zealand.
• Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire. Later, the Bulgarian kingdom joined them, and the coalition became known as the Quadruple Union.

The following took part in the war major countries: Austria-Hungary (July 27, 1914 - November 3, 1918), Germany (August 1, 1914 - November 11, 1918), Turkey (October 29, 1914 - October 30, 1918), Bulgaria (October 14, 1915 - September 29, 1918). Entente countries and allies: Russia (August 1, 1914 - March 3, 1918), France (August 3, 1914), Belgium (August 3, 1914), Great Britain (August 4, 1914), Italy (May 23, 1915), Romania (August 27, 1916) .

Another important point. Initially, a member of the "Triple Alliance" was Italy. But after the outbreak of the First World War, the Italians declared neutrality.

Causes of World War I

The main reason for the outbreak of the First World War is the desire of the leading powers, primarily England, France and Austria-Hungary, to redistribute the world. The fact is that the colonial system collapsed by the beginning of the 20th century. The leading European countries, which had prospered for years by exploiting the colonies, were no longer allowed to obtain resources simply by taking them away from the Indians, Africans and South Americans. Now resources could only be won back from each other. Therefore, contradictions arose:

• Between England and Germany. England sought to prevent the strengthening of German influence in the Balkans. Germany sought to gain a foothold in the Balkans and the Middle East, and also sought to deprive England of naval dominance.
• Between Germany and France. France dreamed of regaining the lands of Alsace and Lorraine, which she had lost in the war of 1870-71. France also sought to seize the German Saar coal basin.
• Between Germany and Russia. Germany sought to take Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states from Russia.
• Between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Contradictions arose because of the desire of both countries to influence the Balkans, as well as the desire of Russia to subjugate the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles.

Cause to start a war

The events in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina) served as the reason for the start of the First World War. On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand organization of the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Archduke Frans Ferdinand. Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, so the resonance of the murder was enormous. This was the reason for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia.

The behavior of England is very important here, since Austria-Hungary could not start a war on its own, because this practically guaranteed a war throughout Europe. The British, at the level of the embassy, ​​convinced Nicholas 2 that Russia, in the event of aggression, should not leave Serbia without help. But then all (I emphasize this) the English press wrote that the Serbs were barbarians and Austria-Hungary should not leave the murder of the Archduke unpunished. That is, England did everything so that Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia did not shy away from war.

Important nuances of the reason for war

In all textbooks we are told that the main and only reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. At the same time, they forget to say that the next day, June 29, another significant murder took place. The French politician Jean Jaures, who actively opposed the war and had great influence in France, was killed. A few weeks before the assassination of the Archduke, there was an attempt on Rasputin, who, like Zhores, was an opponent of the war and had a great influence on Nicholas 2. I also want to note some facts from the fate of the main characters of those days:

• Gavrilo Principin. He died in prison in 1918 from tuberculosis.
• Russian Ambassador to Serbia - Hartley. In 1914 he died at the Austrian embassy in Serbia, where he came for a reception.
• Colonel Apis, leader of the Black Hand. Shot in 1917.
• In 1917 Hartley's correspondence with Sozonov (the next Russian ambassador to Serbia) disappeared.

All this indicates that there were a lot of black spots in the events of the days, which have not yet been revealed. And this is very important to understand.

The role of England in starting the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 2 great powers in continental Europe: Germany and Russia. They did not want to openly fight against each other, since the forces were approximately equal. Therefore, in the "July crisis" of 1914, both sides took a wait-and-see attitude. English diplomacy came to the fore. By means of the press and secret diplomacy, she conveyed to Germany the position - in the event of war, England would remain neutral or take the side of Germany. By open diplomacy, Nicholas 2 heard the opposite idea that in the event of a war, England would take the side of Russia.

It must be clearly understood that one open statement by England that she will not allow war in Europe would be enough for neither Germany nor Russia to even think about anything of the kind. Naturally, under such conditions, Austria-Hungary would not have dared to attack Serbia. But England, with all her diplomacy, pushed the European countries to war.

Russia before the war

Before the First World War, Russia reformed the army. In 1907, the fleet was reformed, and in 1910 the land forces were reformed. The country increased military spending many times over, and the total number of the army in peacetime was now 2 million people. In 1912, Russia adopts a new Field Service Charter. Today it is rightfully called the most perfect Charter of its time, since it motivated soldiers and commanders to take personal initiative. Important point! The doctrine of the army of the Russian Empire was offensive.

Despite the fact that there were many positive changes, there were also very serious miscalculations. The main one is the underestimation of the role of artillery in the war. As the course of events of the First World War showed, this was a terrible mistake, which clearly showed that at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian generals were seriously behind the times. They lived in the past when the role of the cavalry was important. As a result, 75% of all the losses of the First World War were caused by artillery! This is a sentence to the imperial generals.

It is important to note that Russia never finished preparing for the war (at the proper level), while Germany completed it in 1914.

The balance of forces and means before and after the war

Artillery

According to the data from the table, it can be seen that Germany and Austria-Hungary were many times superior to Russia and France in terms of heavy guns. Therefore, the balance of power was in favor of the first two countries. Moreover, the Germans, as usual, before the war created an excellent military industry, which produced 250,000 shells daily. For comparison, Britain produced 10,000 shells a month! As they say, feel the difference...

Another example showing the importance of artillery is the battles on the Dunajec Gorlice line (May 1915). In 4 hours, the German army fired 700,000 shells. For comparison, during the entire Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Germany fired just over 800,000 shells. That is, in 4 hours a little less than in the entire war. The Germans clearly understood that heavy artillery would play a decisive role in the war.

Armament and military equipment

Production of weapons and equipment during the First World War (thousand units).

This table clearly shows the weakness of the Russian Empire in terms of equipping the army. In all major indicators, Russia is far behind Germany, but also behind France and Great Britain. Largely because of this, the war turned out to be so difficult for our country.

Number of people (infantry)

The number of fighting infantry (millions of people).

The table shows that the smallest contribution, both in terms of combatants and in terms of deaths, was made by Great Britain to the war. This is logical, since the British did not really participate in major battles. Another example from this table is illustrative. We are told in all textbooks that Austria-Hungary, due to heavy losses, could not fight on its own, and it always needed Germany's help. But pay attention to Austria-Hungary and France in the table. The numbers are identical! Just as Germany had to fight for Austria-Hungary, so Russia had to fight for France (it is no coincidence that the Russian army saved Paris from capitulation three times during the First World War).

The table also shows that in fact the war was between Russia and Germany. Both countries lost 4.3 million killed, while Britain, France and Austria-Hungary together lost 3.5 million. The numbers are telling. But it turned out that the countries that fought the most and made the most efforts in the war ended up with nothing. First, Russia signed the shameful Brest peace for itself, losing a lot of land. Then Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, in fact, having lost its independence.

The course of the war

Military events of 1914

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. This entailed the involvement in the war of the countries of the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Entente, on the other.

Russia entered World War I on August 1, 1914. Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov (uncle of Nicholas 2) was appointed supreme commander.

In the first days of the beginning of the war, Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. Since the war with Germany began, and the capital could not have a name of German origin - "burg".

History reference

German "Schlieffen Plan"

Germany was under the threat of a war on two fronts: East - with Russia, West - with France. Then the German command developed the "Schlieffen plan", according to which Germany should defeat France in 40 days and then fight with Russia. Why 40 days? The Germans believed that this was exactly how much Russia would need to mobilize. Therefore, when Russia mobilizes, France will already be out of the game.

On August 2, 1914, Germany captured Luxembourg, on August 4 they invaded Belgium (a neutral country at that time), and by August 20 Germany had reached the borders of France. The implementation of the Schlieffen plan began. Germany advanced deep into France, but on September 5 was stopped at the Marne River, where a battle took place, in which about 2 million people participated on both sides.

Northwestern front of Russia in 1914

Russia at the beginning of the war made a stupid thing that Germany could not calculate in any way. Nicholas 2 decided to enter the war without fully mobilizing the army. On August 4, Russian troops, under the command of Rennenkampf, launched an offensive in East Prussia (modern Kaliningrad). Samsonov's army was equipped to help her. Initially, the troops were successful, and Germany was forced to retreat. As a result, part of the forces of the Western Front was transferred to the Eastern. The result - Germany repelled the Russian offensive in East Prussia (the troops acted disorganized and lacked resources), but as a result, the Schlieffen plan failed, and France could not be captured. So, Russia saved Paris, though by defeating its 1st and 2nd armies. After that, a positional war began.

Southwestern Front of Russia

On the southwestern front in August-September, Russia launched an offensive operation against Galicia, which was occupied by the troops of Austria-Hungary. The Galician operation was more successful than the offensive in East Prussia. In this battle, Austria-Hungary suffered a catastrophic defeat. 400 thousand people were killed, 100 thousand captured. For comparison, the Russian army lost 150 thousand people killed. After that, Austria-Hungary actually withdrew from the war, as it lost the ability to conduct independent operations. Austria was saved from complete defeat only by the help of Germany, which was forced to transfer additional divisions to Galicia.

The main results of the military campaign of 1914

• Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen plan for blitzkrieg.
• No one managed to win a decisive advantage. The war turned into a positional one.

Map of military events in 1914-15

Military events of 1915

In 1915, Germany decided to shift the main blow to the eastern front, directing all its forces to the war with Russia, which was the weakest country of the Entente, according to the Germans. It was a strategic plan developed by the commander of the Eastern Front, General von Hindenburg. Russia managed to thwart this plan only at the cost of colossal losses, but at the same time, 1915 turned out to be simply terrible for the empire of Nicholas 2.

The situation on the northwestern front

From January to October, Germany waged an active offensive, as a result of which Russia lost Poland, western Ukraine, part of the Baltic states, and western Belarus. Russia went into deep defense. Russian losses were gigantic:

• Killed and wounded - 850 thousand people
• Captured - 900 thousand people

Russia did not capitulate, but the countries of the "Triple Alliance" were convinced that Russia would not be able to recover from the losses it had received.

Germany's successes in this sector of the front led to the fact that on October 14, 1915, Bulgaria entered the First World War (on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary).

The situation on the southwestern front

The Germans, together with Austria-Hungary, organized the Gorlitsky breakthrough in the spring of 1915, forcing the entire southwestern front of Russia to retreat. Galicia, which was captured in 1914, was completely lost. Germany was able to achieve this advantage thanks to the terrible mistakes of the Russian command, as well as a significant technical advantage. German superiority in technology reached:

• 2.5 times in machine guns.
• 4.5 times in light artillery.
• 40 times in heavy artillery.

It was not possible to withdraw Russia from the war, but the losses on this sector of the front were gigantic: 150,000 killed, 700,000 wounded, 900,000 prisoners and 4 million refugees.

The situation on the western front

All is calm on the Western Front. This phrase can describe how the war between Germany and France in 1915 proceeded. There were sluggish hostilities in which no one sought the initiative. Germany was implementing plans in Eastern Europe, while England and France were calmly mobilizing the economy and the army, preparing for further war. No one provided any assistance to Russia, although Nicholas 2 repeatedly appealed to France, first of all, so that she would switch to active operations on the Western Front. As usual, no one heard him ... By the way, this sluggish war on the western front for Germany is perfectly described by Hemingway in the novel “Farewell to Arms”.

The main result of 1915 was that Germany was unable to withdraw Russia from the war, although all forces were thrown at it. It became obvious that the First World War would drag on for a long time, since in 1.5 years of the war no one was able to gain an advantage or a strategic initiative.

Military events of 1916

"Verdun meat grinder"

In February 1916, Germany launched a general offensive against France, with the aim of capturing Paris. For this, a campaign was carried out on Verdun, which covered the approaches to the French capital. The battle lasted until the end of 1916. During this time, 2 million people died, for which the battle was called the Verdun Meat Grinder. France survived, but again thanks to the fact that Russia came to its rescue, which became more active on the southwestern front.

Events on the southwestern front in 1916

In May 1916, Russian troops went on the offensive, which lasted 2 months. This offensive went down in history under the name "Brusilovsky breakthrough". This name is due to the fact that the Russian army was commanded by General Brusilov. The breakthrough of defense in Bukovina (from Lutsk to Chernivtsi) happened on June 5th. The Russian army managed not only to break through the defense, but also to advance into its depths in places up to 120 kilometers. German and Austro-Hungarian losses were catastrophic. 1.5 million dead, wounded and captured. The offensive was stopped only by additional German divisions, which were hastily transferred here from Verdun (France) and from Italy.

This offensive of the Russian army was not without a fly in the ointment. They threw it, as usual, the allies. On August 27, 1916, Romania enters the First World War on the side of the Entente. Germany very quickly inflicted a defeat on her. As a result, Romania lost its army, and Russia received an additional 2,000 kilometers of front.

Events on the Caucasian and Northwestern fronts

Positional battles continued on the North-Western Front in the spring-autumn period. As for the Caucasian front, here the main events continued from the beginning of 1916 to April. During this time, 2 operations were carried out: Erzumur and Trebizond. According to their results, Erzurum and Trebizond were conquered, respectively.

Outcome of 1916 in World War I

• The strategic initiative went over to the side of the Entente.
• The French fortress of Verdun survived thanks to the advance of the Russian army.
• Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente.
• Russia launched a powerful offensive - the Brusilovsky breakthrough.

Military and political events of 1917

The year 1917 in the First World War was marked by the fact that the war continued against the background of the revolutionary situation in Russia and Germany, as well as the deterioration of the economic situation of the countries. I will give an example of Russia. During the 3 years of the war, prices for basic products increased by an average of 4-4.5 times. Naturally, this caused discontent among the people. Add to this heavy losses and a grueling war - it turns out excellent ground for revolutionaries. The situation is similar in Germany.

In 1917, the United States enters World War I. The positions of the "Triple Alliance" are deteriorating. Germany with allies cannot effectively fight on 2 fronts, as a result of which it goes on the defensive.

End of the war for Russia

In the spring of 1917, Germany launched another offensive on the Western Front. Despite the events in Russia, the Western countries demanded that the Provisional Government implement the agreements signed by the Empire and send troops on the offensive. As a result, on June 16, the Russian army went on the offensive in the Lvov region. Again, we saved the allies from major battles, but they themselves substituted capitally.

The Russian army, exhausted by the war and losses, did not want to fight. Issues of provisions, uniforms and supplies during the war years have not been resolved. The army fought reluctantly, but moved forward. The Germans were forced to re-deploy troops here, and Russia's Entente allies again isolated themselves, watching what would happen next. On July 6, Germany launched a counteroffensive. As a result, 150,000 Russian soldiers died. The army actually ceased to exist. The front has collapsed. Russia could no longer fight, and this catastrophe was inevitable.

People demanded that Russia withdraw from the war. And this was one of their main demands on the Bolsheviks, who seized power in October 1917. Initially, at the 2nd Party Congress, the Bolsheviks signed the Decree "On Peace", in fact declaring Russia's withdrawal from the war, and on March 3, 1918, they signed the Brest Peace. The conditions of this world were as follows:

• Russia makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
• Russia is losing Poland, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and the Baltic states.
• Russia cedes Batum, Kars and Ardagan to Turkey.

As a result of its participation in the First World War, Russia lost: about 1 million square meters territory, lost about 1/4 of the population, 1/4 of arable land and 3/4 of the coal and metallurgical industries.

History reference

Events in the war in 1918

Germany got rid of the Eastern Front and the need to wage war in 2 directions. As a result, in the spring and summer of 1918, she attempted an offensive on the Western Front, but this offensive had no success. Moreover, in its course it became obvious that Germany was squeezing the maximum out of herself, and that she needed a break in the war.

Autumn 1918

The decisive events in the First World War took place in the autumn. The Entente countries, together with the United States, went on the offensive. The German army was completely ousted from France and Belgium. In October, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria signed a truce with the Entente, and Germany was left to fight alone. Her position was hopeless, after the German allies in the "Triple Alliance" essentially capitulated. This resulted in the same thing that happened in Russia - a revolution. On November 9, 1918, Emperor Wilhelm II was deposed.

End of World War I

On November 11, 1918, the First World War of 1914-1918 ended. Germany signed a complete surrender. It happened near Paris, in the forest of Compiègne, at the Retonde station. The surrender was accepted by the French Marshal Foch. The terms of the signed peace were as follows:

• Germany recognizes complete defeat in the war.
• The return of France to the province of Alsace and Lorraine to the borders of 1870, as well as the transfer of the Saar coal basin.
• Germany lost all its colonial possessions, and also pledged to transfer 1/8 of its territory to its geographical neighbors.
• For 15 years, the Entente troops are located on the left bank of the Rhine.
• By May 1, 1921, Germany had to pay the members of the Entente (Russia was not supposed to do anything) 20 billion marks in gold, goods, securities, etc.
• For 30 years, Germany must pay reparations, and the amount of these reparations is set by the victors themselves and can increase them at any time during these 30 years.
• Germany was forbidden to have an army of more than 100 thousand people, and the army was obliged to be exclusively voluntary.

The terms of "peace" were so humiliating for Germany that the country actually became a puppet. Therefore, many people of that time said that the First World War, although it ended, did not end with peace, but with a truce for 30 years. And so it eventually happened ...

Results of the First World War

The First World War was fought on the territory of 14 states. Countries with a total population of over 1 billion people took part in it (this is approximately 62% of the total world population at that time). In total, 74 million people were mobilized by the participating countries, of which 10 million died and another 20 million were injured.

As a result of the war political map Europe has changed significantly. There were such independent states as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Albania. Austria-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Increased their borders Romania, Greece, France, Italy. There were 5 countries that lost and lost in the territory: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia.

Map of the First World War 1914-1918

How the 1st World War began. Part 1.

Sarajevo murder

On August 1, 1914, the First World War began. There were many reasons for it, and all that was needed was an excuse to start it. This occasion was the event that occurred a month before - June 28, 1914.

The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand Karl Ludwig Joseph von Habsburg was the eldest son of Archduke Karl Ludwig, brother of Emperor Franz Joseph.

Archduke Karl Ludwig

Emperor Franz Joseph

The aged emperor ruled by that time for the 66th year, having managed to outlive all the other heirs. The only son and heir of Franz Joseph, Crown Prince Rudolf, according to one version, shot himself in 1889 in Mayerling Castle, having killed his beloved Baroness Maria Vechera before that, and according to another version, he became the victim of a carefully planned political assassination that simulated the suicide of the only direct heir to the throne. In 1896, Franz Joseph's brother Karl Ludwig died after drinking water from the Jordan River. After that, the son of Karl Ludwig Franz Ferdinand became the heir to the throne.

Franz Ferdinand

Franz Ferdinand was the main hope of the decaying monarchy. In 1906, the Archduke drew up a plan for the transformation of Austria-Hungary, which, if implemented, could prolong the life of the Habsburg Empire, reducing the degree of interethnic contradictions. According to this plan, the Patchwork Empire would turn into a federal state of the United States of Greater Austria, in which 12 national autonomies for each of the major nationalities living in Austria-Hungary. However, this plan was opposed by the Prime Minister of Hungary, Count István Tisza, since such a transformation of the country would put an end to the privileged position of the Hungarians.

Istvan Tisza

He resisted so much that he was ready to kill the hated heir. He spoke about this so frankly that there was even a version that it was he who ordered the assassination of the Archduke.

On June 28, 1914, Franz Ferdinand, at the invitation of the viceroy in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Feldzeugmeister (that is, general of artillery) Oscar Potiorek, arrived in Sarajevo for maneuvers.

General Oskar Potiorek

Sarajevo was the main city of Bosnia. Before the Russian-Turkish war, Bosnia belonged to the Turks, and as a result, it was supposed to go to Serbia. However, Austro-Hungarian troops were brought into Bosnia, and in 1908 Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia to its possessions. Neither the Serbs, nor the Turks, nor the Russians were satisfied with this situation, and then, in 1908-09, because of this accession, a war almost broke out, but the then Minister of Foreign Affairs Alexander Petrovich Izvolsky warned the tsar against rash actions, and the war took place a little later.

Alexander Petrovich Izvolsky

In 1912, the Mlada Bosna organization was created in Bosnia and Herzegovina to liberate Bosnia and Herzegovina from occupation and unite with Serbia. The arrival of the heir was most welcome for the Young Bosnians, and they decided to kill the Archduke. Six Young Bosnians suffering from tuberculosis were dispatched for the assassination attempt. They had nothing to lose: in the coming months, death awaited them anyway.

Trifko Grabetsky, Nedeljko Chabrinovich, Gavrilo Princip

Franz Ferdinand and his morganatic wife Sophia-Maria-Josephina-Albina Hotek von Hotkow und Wognin arrived in Sarajevo early in the morning.

Sofia-Maria-Josephina-Albina Hotek von Hotkow und Vognin

Franz Ferdinand and Duchess Sophie of Hohenberg

On the way to the town hall, the couple was subjected to the first assassination attempt: one of these six, Nedeljko Chabrinovich, threw a bomb on the route of the cortege, but the fuse turned out to be too long, and the bomb exploded only under the third car. The bomb killed the driver of this car and wounded its passengers, the most significant person of which was Piotrek's adjutant Erich von Merizze, as well as a policeman and passers-by from the crowd. Chabrinovich tried to poison himself with potassium cyanide and drown himself in the Milyatsk River, but neither of them worked. He was arrested and sentenced to 20 years, but he died a year and a half later from the same tuberculosis.

Upon arrival at the town hall, the Archduke delivered a prepared speech and decided to go to the hospital to visit the wounded.

Franz Ferdinand was dressed in a blue uniform, black trousers with red stripes, a high cap with green parrot feathers. Sofia was wearing a white dress and a wide hat with an ostrich feather. Instead of the driver, Archduke Franz Urban, the owner of the car, Count Harrach, sat behind the wheel, and Potiorek sat to his left to show the way. A Gräf & Stift car raced along the Appel embankment.

Diagram of the murder scene

At the Latin Bridge junction, the car braked slightly, downshifting, and the driver began to turn right. At this time, having just drunk coffee in Stiller's shop, one of the same tubercular six, 19-year-old high school student Gavrilo Princip, went out into the street.

Gavrilo Princip

He was just walking along the Latin Bridge and saw the turning Gräf & Stift quite by accident. Without a moment's hesitation, Princip pulled out Browning and pierced the archduke's stomach with the first shot. Sophia got the second bullet. He wanted to spend the Third Principle on Potiorek, but did not have time - the people who had fled disarmed the youth and began to beat him. Only the intervention of the police saved Gavrila's life.

Browning Gavrilo Princip

Arrest of Gavrilo Princip

Like a minor it instead death penalty sentenced to the same 20 years, and during the imprisonment they even began to treat him for tuberculosis, extending his life right up to April 28, 1918.

The site where the Archduke was killed today. View from the Latin Bridge.

For some reason, the wounded Archduke and his wife were taken not to the hospital, which was already a couple of blocks away, but to the residence of Potiorek, where, under the howling and lamentations of the retinue, both died of blood loss, without receiving medical care.

Everyone knows what followed: since the terrorists were Serbs, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia. Russia stood up for Serbia, threatening Austria, and Germany stood up for Austria. As a result, a month later, a world war broke out.

Franz Joseph survived this heir, and after his death, the 27-year-old Karl, the son of the imperial nephew Otto, who died in 1906, became emperor.

Karl Franz Joseph

He had to rule for a little less than two years. The collapse of the empire found him in Budapest. In 1921 Charles tried to become king of Hungary. Having organized a rebellion, he, with troops loyal to him, reached almost all the way to Budapest, but was arrested and on November 19 of the same year he was taken to the Portuguese island of Madeira, designated to him as a place of exile. A few months later, he died suddenly, allegedly from pneumonia.

The same Gräf & Stift. The car had a four-cylinder 32-horsepower engine, which allowed it to develop a 70-kilometer speed. The working volume of the engine was 5.88 liters. The car did not have a starter and was started by a crank. It is located in the Vienna Military Museum. It even retained a number plate with the number "A III118". Subsequently, one of the paranoid deciphered this number as the date of the end of the First World War. In accordance with this decoding, it means "Armistice", that is, a truce, and for some reason in English. The first two Roman units mean "11", the third Roman and the first Arabic units mean "November", and the last one and eight denote the year 1918 - it was on November 11, 1918 that the Compiègne truce took place, which put an end to the First World War.

World War I could have been avoided

After Gavrila Princip assassinated the heir to the Austrian throne Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo, the possibility of preventing the war remained, and neither Austria nor Germany considered this war inevitable.

Three weeks elapsed between the day the Archduke was assassinated and the day Austria-Hungary announced the ultimatum to Serbia. The alarm that arose after this event soon subsided, and the Austrian government and personally Emperor Franz Joseph hastened to assure St. Petersburg that they did not intend to take any military actions. The fact that Germany did not think of fighting at the beginning of July is also evidenced by the fact that a week after the assassination of the Archduke, Kaiser Wilhelm II went to summer rest into the Norwegian fjords

Wilhelm II

There was a political lull, usual for the summer season. Ministers, members of parliament, high-ranking government and military officials went on vacation. The tragedy in Sarajevo didn't particularly alarm anyone in Russia either: most politicians were immersed in the problems of domestic life.

Everything was ruined by an event that happened in mid-July. In those days, taking advantage of the parliamentary recess, the President of the French Republic, Raymond Poincare, and the Prime Minister and, at the same time, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, René Viviani paid an official visit to Nicholas II, arriving in Russia aboard a French battleship.

French battleship

The meeting took place on July 7-10 (20-23) at the Tsar's summer residence, Peterhof. In the early morning of July 7 (20) the French guests moved from the battleship anchored in Kronstadt to the royal yacht, which took them to Peterhof.

Raymond Poincaré and Nicholas II

After three days of negotiations, banquets and receptions, interspersed with visits to the traditional summer maneuvers of the guards regiments and units of the St. Petersburg Military District, the French visitors returned to their battleship and departed for Scandinavia. However, despite the political lull, this meeting did not go unnoticed by the intelligence of the Central Powers. Such a visit unequivocally testified: Russia and France are preparing something, and this something is being prepared against them.

It must be frankly admitted that Nikolai did not want war and tried his best to prevent it from starting. In contrast, the highest diplomatic and military officials were in favor of military action and tried to put the strongest pressure on Nicholas. As soon as on July 24 (11), 1914, a telegram arrived from Belgrade stating that Austria-Hungary had presented an ultimatum to Serbia, Sazonov joyfully exclaimed: “Yes, this is a European war.” On the same day, at breakfast with the French ambassador, which was attended by the British ambassador, Sazonov called on the allies to take decisive action. And at three o'clock in the afternoon, he demanded to convene a meeting of the Council of Ministers, at which he raised the question of demonstrative military preparations. At this meeting, it was decided to mobilize four districts against Austria: Odessa, Kyiv, Moscow and Kazan, as well as the Black Sea, and, strangely, the Baltic Fleet. The latter was already a threat not so much to Austria-Hungary, which had access only to the Adriatic, as against Germany, the sea border with which passed exactly along the Baltic. In addition, the Council of Ministers proposed to introduce from July 26 (13) throughout the country a "regulation on the preparatory period for war."

Vladimir Alexandrovich Sukhomlinov

On July 25 (12) Austria-Hungary declared that it refused to extend the time limit for Serbia's response. The latter, in its response on the advice of Russia, expressed its readiness to satisfy the Austrian demands by 90%. Only the demand for the entry of officials and the military into the country was rejected. Serbia was also ready to refer the case to the Hague International Tribunal or to the consideration of the great powers. However, at 6:30 p.m. that day, the Austrian envoy in Belgrade notified the Serbian government that its response to the ultimatum was unsatisfactory, and he, along with the entire mission, was leaving Belgrade. But even at this stage, the possibilities for a peaceful settlement were not exhausted.

Sergei Dmitrievich Sazonov

However, through the efforts of Sazonov, it was reported to Berlin (and for some reason not to Vienna) that on July 29 (16) the mobilization of four military districts would be announced. Sazonov did everything possible to offend Germany as much as possible, which was bound to Austria by allied obligations. And what were the alternatives? some will ask. After all, it was impossible to leave the Serbs in trouble. That's right, you can't. But the steps that Sazonov took led precisely to the fact that Serbia, which had neither sea nor land connections with Russia, found itself face to face with the furious Austria-Hungary. The mobilization of four districts could not help Serbia in any way. Moreover, the notification of its beginning made Austrian steps even more decisive. It seems that Sazonov wanted a declaration of war on Serbia by Austria more than the Austrians themselves. On the contrary, in their diplomatic moves, Austria-Hungary and Germany maintained that Austria was not seeking territorial gains in Serbia and was not threatening its integrity. Its sole purpose is to ensure its own peace and public safety.

Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire (1910-1916) Sergei Dmitrievich Sazonov and German Ambassador to Russia (1907-1914) Count Friedrich von Pourtales

The German ambassador, trying to somehow even out the situation, visited Sazonov and asked if Russia would be satisfied with the promise of Austria not to violate the integrity of Serbia. Sazonov gave the following written answer: “If Austria, realizing that the Austro-Serbian conflict has acquired a European character, declares its readiness to exclude from its ultimatum items that violate the sovereign rights of Serbia, Russia undertakes to stop its military preparations.” This answer was tougher than the position of England and Italy, which provided for the possibility of accepting these points. This circumstance indicates that the Russian ministers at that time decided to go to war, completely disregarding the opinion of the emperor.

The generals hastened to mobilize with the greatest noise. On the morning of 31 (18) July, announcements printed on red paper appeared in St. Petersburg, calling for mobilization. The excited German ambassador tried to get explanations and concessions from Sazonov. At 12 o'clock in the night Pourtales visited Sazonov and handed over to him, on behalf of his government, a statement that if Russia did not start demobilization at 12 o'clock in the afternoon, the German government would give an order for mobilization.

It was worth canceling the mobilization, and the war would not have started.

However, instead of announcing mobilization after the expiration of the term, as Germany would have done if she really wanted war, the German Foreign Ministry several times demanded that Pourtales seek a meeting with Sazonov. Sazonov deliberately delayed the meeting with the German ambassador in order to force Germany to be the first to take a hostile step. Finally, at the seventh hour, the Minister of Foreign Affairs arrived at the Ministry building. Soon the German ambassador was already entering his office. In great agitation, he asked if Russian government respond to yesterday's German note in a favorable tone. At that moment, it depended only on Sazonov whether or not there would be a war.

Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire (1910-1916) Sergei Dmitrievich Sazonov

Sazonov could not but know the consequences of his answer. He knew that three years remained before the full implementation of our military program, while Germany completed its program in January. He knew that the war would hit foreign trade, cutting off our export routes. He also could not help but know that the majority of Russian manufacturers were against the war, and that the sovereign himself and the imperial family were against the war. If he had said yes, peace would have continued on the planet. Russian volunteers through Bulgaria and Greece would get to Serbia. Russia would help her with weapons. Meanwhile, conferences would be convened that, in the end, would be able to extinguish the Austro-Serbian conflict, and Serbia would not be occupied for three years. But Sazonov said his "no". But this was not the end. Pourtales again asked if Russia could give Germany a favorable answer. Sazonov again firmly refused. But then it was not difficult to guess what was in the pocket of the German ambassador. If he asks the same question a second time, it is clear that something terrible will happen if the answer is no. But Pourtales asked this question for the third time, giving Sazonov one last chance. Who is this Sazonov to make such a decision for the people, for the thought, for the tsar and for the government? If history forced him to give an immediate answer, he had to remember the interests of Russia, whether she wanted to fight in order to work off Anglo-French loans with the blood of Russian soldiers. And still Sazonov repeated his "no" for the third time. After the third refusal, Pourtales took from his pocket a note from the German embassy, ​​which contained a declaration of war.

Friedrich von Pourtales

One gets the impression that individual Russian officials did everything possible to start the war as soon as possible, and if they did not, then the First World War could, if not be avoided, then at least postponed until a more convenient time.

As a sign of mutual love and eternal friendship, shortly before the war, the “brothers” changed their dress uniforms.

http://lemur59.ru/node/8984)